Camp Parapet
When Admiral Farragut's fleet, with support of the US Army, occupied New Orleans in 1862, General Butler immediately began fortifying his position. As news of the fall of New Orleans reached nearby plantations, men, women, and children escaped bondage and made their way to Union occupied New Orleans. Camps were set up to house, feed, and employ the refugees into the city and surrounding areas. Camp Parapet, in Carrollton, Louisiana consisted of five camps. One of those camps was specifically identified as an "engineer camp" and employed able bodied men in the repair of levees and earthworks near New Orleans. Those men employed in engineer work were paid a wage and had specific work hours and were permitted to leave the camp to stay with their wives and children at the end of the work day.
In the summer of 1862, the first attempts in Louisiana to arm and equip men of African ancestry into the Union Army were made by Brig. Gen. John W. Phelps, a Vermont abolitionist with Gen Butler in New Orleans, Louisiana. Phelps desired to arm, uniform, and equip the contrabands utilized by him for engineer duties to defend the position at Camp Parapet near Carrollton, just a few miles upriver from New Orleans. On July 30, 1862, Phelps asked Butler for "arms, accoutrements, clothing, camp and garrison equipage, & etc for three regiments of Africans, which I propose to raise for the defense of this point." Butler, who had been using the contraband to repair levees, widen drainage ditches, and strengthen fortifications, denied the request and instructed Phelps to use them to "cut down all the trees between Camp Parapet and Lake Pontchartrain." Phelps resigned over the issue stating, "...while I am willing to prepare African regiments for the defense of the government," he continued, that he "was not willing to become a mere slave driver which you propose."
Although the men of the camp were not accepted into the army in the summer of 1862, the camp continued to be organized in somewhat of a "military" manner. This was done through the following order by Col. Thomas W. Cahill:
Parapet, La.
Sept. 1862.
"After this date all the male negroes, within and about the Camps, will be organized into squads of Fifty or less in number with the woman and children belonging to each squad, under the charge of a private Soldier, who will be furnished with a Roll Book, in which he will enter the names of his squad, designating the married and single and the number of children.
Rations will be drawn for those of the squads that show a disposition to work regularly and for their wives and children and for the sick and disabled. The idle and worthless will not be fed
A Commissioned Officer will be detailed to superintend (under the direction of the Qr. Master) all the negroes; He will see that the men in charge of squads, report with them every morning at 7 o'clock for work. They will labor at such works as may be assigned them until 12 o'clock when they will be dismissed for dinner until 2 o'clock P.M. at which hour they will resume labor, until 6 o'clock P.M.
Rations will be drawn for these squads, every third day; this to enable the chiefs of squads to designate the Idle and worthless men for whom if they miss Two days labor out of three no rations will be drawn.
The chiefs will designate those present and absent as is done by the Orderly Sergeants of Companies The superintending Officer will have a careful supervision of these matters, as it is the only means in our power by which we can control the labor, and make the presence of these people useful. They will be mustered for Inspection every Sunday morning.
It is expected that it will require Twenty men to take charge of these people as chiefs of squads, and these should be sober, Careful & reliable men, who will conscientiously discharge their duties.
The superintending Officer will see that each squad, are at their allotted work regularly at the working hour. The women attached to each squad, will Cook for all the men of the squads, so that no able-bodied men will be left in their quarters under any pretense to cook..."
The men were placed in work gangs of 125 men each supervised by two enlisted men from companies C and H of the 42nd Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry who had been placed in engineer service with the Department of the Gulf under Maj. Houston, Chief Engineer, repairing earthworks. The gangs were further divided into squads of 25 each commanded by the "most intelligent" of the men to be found. They drilled in marching and facings as part of their routine. "They took great interest in these drills and improved rapidly, manifesting considerable intelligence."
"[Camp Parapet, La. September? 1862]
Instructions for the Non-Commissioned Officers in command of Contraband Colonies at Camp Parapet.
1st
No transfers from one Colony to another will under any circumstances be allowed.
2d
The Officer in command of the Colony will assign new arrivals to squads as his judgment may dictate.
3d
A perfect system of registration will be complied with. The name, age, residence, masters name, date of arrival, whether married or single, sex, No of Children, age of Children, their sex and “remarks” will be written under their respective heads.
Under the head of “remarks” the cause of absence whether by death, desertion or transfer, and all else necessary to account fully for every member of the Colony will be carefully stated opposite their respective names
4th
Roll calls will be at the same hours, as those of the Brigade, immediately after retreat each day the commandants of Colonies will hand to the Supervising Officer a report of their commands showing fully their numerical and Sanitary condition.
5th
The chiefs of squads will daily note upon their roll book the delinquents from duty and report the same to the chief of the Colony who will inquire into the cause of the delinquency, and unless a good and sufficient cause therefor is apparent, he will withhold from said delinquent his rations for the next three days.
6th
The Chiefs of squads will report promptly to the Quarter Master with their men for duty every morning (Sundays excepted) at 8 o:clock, and every afternoon at 2 o:clock.
Geo H Hanks"
The April 17, 1863 Incident:
No guard was kept over these contraband colonies...they could come and go as they pleased; but over those able-bodied in the engineer camp a line of sentinels was placed, whose orders, at first, allowed them considerable liberty after their day's work was done. A great many had wives who were domiciled in the colonies and as the sun set would go see them, often remaining out of camp all night long.
According to Sergeant-Major Bosson, 42nd Mass. Vol. Infantry, on engineer service supervising the camp, "A considerable number would attend the numerous religious meetings held every night in the swamps. This exodus, at times, was so great that detachments of men from Companies C and H, mounted upon mules, would be started to hunt them up and bring them into camp..." It became necessary to have more stringent orders and by "directions from General Sumner, Engineer Department, the sentries were ordered to shoot any one that attempted to leave without authority to do so. Naturally, this created considerable dissatisfaction among them, especially those who had wives and children in other camps."
On the evening of April 17, 1863, "a negro man, while attempting to creep out of the engineer camp, was detected in the ditch and challenged; not responding, he was shot in the back by a sentry from Company H. His wound was an ugly one, and he died the next day, after receiving every attention that could be given. The camp was was thrown into great excitement by this event, requiring a great force of soldiers on the spot before quiet was restored. Many officers expressed their indignation at the manner in which the negroes were restricted and guarded in this camp, as they did not consider these strict rules necessary. To get the case before a court, where their views could be ventilated, Lieutenant White placed the sentry in arrest."
Captain Leonard, 42nd Mass Vol. Inf., released the sentry the next day as he believed the orders compelled him to fire as he did.
Sources:
Boson, Charles P., History of the Forty-Second Regiment Infantry, Massachusetts Volunteers.
In the summer of 1862, the first attempts in Louisiana to arm and equip men of African ancestry into the Union Army were made by Brig. Gen. John W. Phelps, a Vermont abolitionist with Gen Butler in New Orleans, Louisiana. Phelps desired to arm, uniform, and equip the contrabands utilized by him for engineer duties to defend the position at Camp Parapet near Carrollton, just a few miles upriver from New Orleans. On July 30, 1862, Phelps asked Butler for "arms, accoutrements, clothing, camp and garrison equipage, & etc for three regiments of Africans, which I propose to raise for the defense of this point." Butler, who had been using the contraband to repair levees, widen drainage ditches, and strengthen fortifications, denied the request and instructed Phelps to use them to "cut down all the trees between Camp Parapet and Lake Pontchartrain." Phelps resigned over the issue stating, "...while I am willing to prepare African regiments for the defense of the government," he continued, that he "was not willing to become a mere slave driver which you propose."
Although the men of the camp were not accepted into the army in the summer of 1862, the camp continued to be organized in somewhat of a "military" manner. This was done through the following order by Col. Thomas W. Cahill:
Parapet, La.
Sept. 1862.
"After this date all the male negroes, within and about the Camps, will be organized into squads of Fifty or less in number with the woman and children belonging to each squad, under the charge of a private Soldier, who will be furnished with a Roll Book, in which he will enter the names of his squad, designating the married and single and the number of children.
Rations will be drawn for those of the squads that show a disposition to work regularly and for their wives and children and for the sick and disabled. The idle and worthless will not be fed
A Commissioned Officer will be detailed to superintend (under the direction of the Qr. Master) all the negroes; He will see that the men in charge of squads, report with them every morning at 7 o'clock for work. They will labor at such works as may be assigned them until 12 o'clock when they will be dismissed for dinner until 2 o'clock P.M. at which hour they will resume labor, until 6 o'clock P.M.
Rations will be drawn for these squads, every third day; this to enable the chiefs of squads to designate the Idle and worthless men for whom if they miss Two days labor out of three no rations will be drawn.
The chiefs will designate those present and absent as is done by the Orderly Sergeants of Companies The superintending Officer will have a careful supervision of these matters, as it is the only means in our power by which we can control the labor, and make the presence of these people useful. They will be mustered for Inspection every Sunday morning.
It is expected that it will require Twenty men to take charge of these people as chiefs of squads, and these should be sober, Careful & reliable men, who will conscientiously discharge their duties.
The superintending Officer will see that each squad, are at their allotted work regularly at the working hour. The women attached to each squad, will Cook for all the men of the squads, so that no able-bodied men will be left in their quarters under any pretense to cook..."
The men were placed in work gangs of 125 men each supervised by two enlisted men from companies C and H of the 42nd Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry who had been placed in engineer service with the Department of the Gulf under Maj. Houston, Chief Engineer, repairing earthworks. The gangs were further divided into squads of 25 each commanded by the "most intelligent" of the men to be found. They drilled in marching and facings as part of their routine. "They took great interest in these drills and improved rapidly, manifesting considerable intelligence."
"[Camp Parapet, La. September? 1862]
Instructions for the Non-Commissioned Officers in command of Contraband Colonies at Camp Parapet.
1st
No transfers from one Colony to another will under any circumstances be allowed.
2d
The Officer in command of the Colony will assign new arrivals to squads as his judgment may dictate.
3d
A perfect system of registration will be complied with. The name, age, residence, masters name, date of arrival, whether married or single, sex, No of Children, age of Children, their sex and “remarks” will be written under their respective heads.
Under the head of “remarks” the cause of absence whether by death, desertion or transfer, and all else necessary to account fully for every member of the Colony will be carefully stated opposite their respective names
4th
Roll calls will be at the same hours, as those of the Brigade, immediately after retreat each day the commandants of Colonies will hand to the Supervising Officer a report of their commands showing fully their numerical and Sanitary condition.
5th
The chiefs of squads will daily note upon their roll book the delinquents from duty and report the same to the chief of the Colony who will inquire into the cause of the delinquency, and unless a good and sufficient cause therefor is apparent, he will withhold from said delinquent his rations for the next three days.
6th
The Chiefs of squads will report promptly to the Quarter Master with their men for duty every morning (Sundays excepted) at 8 o:clock, and every afternoon at 2 o:clock.
Geo H Hanks"
The April 17, 1863 Incident:
No guard was kept over these contraband colonies...they could come and go as they pleased; but over those able-bodied in the engineer camp a line of sentinels was placed, whose orders, at first, allowed them considerable liberty after their day's work was done. A great many had wives who were domiciled in the colonies and as the sun set would go see them, often remaining out of camp all night long.
According to Sergeant-Major Bosson, 42nd Mass. Vol. Infantry, on engineer service supervising the camp, "A considerable number would attend the numerous religious meetings held every night in the swamps. This exodus, at times, was so great that detachments of men from Companies C and H, mounted upon mules, would be started to hunt them up and bring them into camp..." It became necessary to have more stringent orders and by "directions from General Sumner, Engineer Department, the sentries were ordered to shoot any one that attempted to leave without authority to do so. Naturally, this created considerable dissatisfaction among them, especially those who had wives and children in other camps."
On the evening of April 17, 1863, "a negro man, while attempting to creep out of the engineer camp, was detected in the ditch and challenged; not responding, he was shot in the back by a sentry from Company H. His wound was an ugly one, and he died the next day, after receiving every attention that could be given. The camp was was thrown into great excitement by this event, requiring a great force of soldiers on the spot before quiet was restored. Many officers expressed their indignation at the manner in which the negroes were restricted and guarded in this camp, as they did not consider these strict rules necessary. To get the case before a court, where their views could be ventilated, Lieutenant White placed the sentry in arrest."
Captain Leonard, 42nd Mass Vol. Inf., released the sentry the next day as he believed the orders compelled him to fire as he did.
Sources:
Boson, Charles P., History of the Forty-Second Regiment Infantry, Massachusetts Volunteers.
Interactive map of contraband/refugee camps. Zoom into the New Orleans area and there are four locations identified as belonging to the Camp Parapet complex. Each has details on the camp location. One mentions an incident where a black soldier with long locks, which he had for religious reasons, was forced to be cut by the Army. Devastated, he shot himself in front of his fellow soldiers in front of a dress parade.
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First Louisiana Engineers
On March 26th, First Sergeant Gilbert Hill and Sergeant William Shepard, 42nd Mass Vol. Inf. were ordered to report to Captain Justin Hodge, assistant quartermaster, Department of the Gulf, in Baton Rouge on recruiting service for the First Louisiana Engineers. Hill and Shepard afterwards received commissions as first and second lieutenants. From April 1st to the 28th, 1863, Justin Hodge, now a colonel, began the recruitment and enlistment of men into the First Louisiana Engineers at Camp Parapet. The men employed in the "engineer" camp, already trained in facings and basic infantry drill, were mustered into service on April 28th. At the official muster the men were drawn up in line, when a German officer, who spoke poor English, said something to them, that few could understand, and they were officially mustered into service. It was said that the men were "wonderfully tickled at the idea of becoming soldiers" and "proud to belong to the 'machinery department'' of the army.
The First Louisiana Engineers was composed of 12 companies of 65 men each in three battalions. General Orders No. 40, XIX Corps, issued May 1st, 1863, incorporated the engineer regiment into the "Corps d'Afrique." Thirteen men of the 42nd Mass. Vol. Inf., who had been supervisors of the men in the "engineer camp" at Camp Parapet, then received commissions into the First Louisiana Engineers, four of them would be transferred into what would become the 97th U.S.C.T.; Sgt. Moses Washburn, Pvt. William Melvin, Sgt. James Hill, and Pvt. Charles Warren.
On April 26th, Lieutenant White took command of companies D and F (about 130 men) and, under orders, proceeded to Brashear City along with 30 men of the 12th Maine Infantry under Lieut. Swift. They remained there for three weeks awaiting steamers (two tug boats, the Sykes and Anglo American, and two barges) before advancing up the Bayou Teche to clear log jam obstacles. Working in harsh conditions and without a surgeon or medical supplies, measles appeared and half of the men were unfit for duty and seven died. Provisions ran short. At Bayou Sorrel, deep in the Atchafalaya Basin, they were attacked by Brig. Gen. Mouton's Confederate guerillas the first night and the expedition became nearly surrounded. A small detachment was sent back to Brashear City for provisions and "arms for the negro companies" but only 40 muskets, without bayonets or ammunition, were obtained. The men sawed and hacked while covered in mosquitoes until June 19th when they arrived in camp on the bank of the Mississippi at Plaquemine. They awoke the next morning with buildings on fire and their boats burning at their wharves, set on fire by Texas troops. The men flagged down the sternwheeler Southerner, in route to Port Hudson from the hospital with 350 unarmed soldiers, which rescued them.
Meanwhile, the remaining companies of the First Louisiana Engineers were still in camp at Carrollton, Louisiana (Camp Parapet) and had yet to be issued arms, accoutrements, or even uniform. Despite this, the newly mustered men were issued orders to board a steamer and were sent off to Baton Rouge.
Sources:
Boson, Charles P., History of the Forty-Second Regiment Infantry, Massachusetts Volunteers.
Frasier, Donald S., Blood on the Bayou: Vicksburg, Port Hudson, and the Trans-Mississippi (2015)
The First Louisiana Engineers was composed of 12 companies of 65 men each in three battalions. General Orders No. 40, XIX Corps, issued May 1st, 1863, incorporated the engineer regiment into the "Corps d'Afrique." Thirteen men of the 42nd Mass. Vol. Inf., who had been supervisors of the men in the "engineer camp" at Camp Parapet, then received commissions into the First Louisiana Engineers, four of them would be transferred into what would become the 97th U.S.C.T.; Sgt. Moses Washburn, Pvt. William Melvin, Sgt. James Hill, and Pvt. Charles Warren.
On April 26th, Lieutenant White took command of companies D and F (about 130 men) and, under orders, proceeded to Brashear City along with 30 men of the 12th Maine Infantry under Lieut. Swift. They remained there for three weeks awaiting steamers (two tug boats, the Sykes and Anglo American, and two barges) before advancing up the Bayou Teche to clear log jam obstacles. Working in harsh conditions and without a surgeon or medical supplies, measles appeared and half of the men were unfit for duty and seven died. Provisions ran short. At Bayou Sorrel, deep in the Atchafalaya Basin, they were attacked by Brig. Gen. Mouton's Confederate guerillas the first night and the expedition became nearly surrounded. A small detachment was sent back to Brashear City for provisions and "arms for the negro companies" but only 40 muskets, without bayonets or ammunition, were obtained. The men sawed and hacked while covered in mosquitoes until June 19th when they arrived in camp on the bank of the Mississippi at Plaquemine. They awoke the next morning with buildings on fire and their boats burning at their wharves, set on fire by Texas troops. The men flagged down the sternwheeler Southerner, in route to Port Hudson from the hospital with 350 unarmed soldiers, which rescued them.
Meanwhile, the remaining companies of the First Louisiana Engineers were still in camp at Carrollton, Louisiana (Camp Parapet) and had yet to be issued arms, accoutrements, or even uniform. Despite this, the newly mustered men were issued orders to board a steamer and were sent off to Baton Rouge.
Sources:
Boson, Charles P., History of the Forty-Second Regiment Infantry, Massachusetts Volunteers.
Frasier, Donald S., Blood on the Bayou: Vicksburg, Port Hudson, and the Trans-Mississippi (2015)
Siege of Port Hudson
On May 20, 1863 the First Louisiana Engineers received orders to proceed to Baton Rouge as part of General Neal Dow’s brigade. They arrived on the 21st. and the next day. May 22, the First Louisiana Engineers, “without arms, clothed in straw hats and uncouth clothing, took part in its first dress parade,” Their appearance was notably disappointing to the military spectators. Two days later, May 24, General Banks ordered all the “able-bodied Negroes” to report to Port Hudson. The Regiment struck camp and embarked on transports up the Mississippi River to Springfield Landing, arriving at the Siege of Port Hudson. The regiment was divided into detachments in order to cover the entire line, approximately five miles, under direction by Capt. Joseph Bailey, Chief Engineer.
Throughout the day May 25, 1863, they were engaged in building breastworks across the Federal line. “Nearly all of the line of earth-work is intended to be of the zigzag kind. The ditch, where there is any, is about four feet in both depth and breadth, and the parapet is hardly high enough to hide a man immediately behind it. The chief strength of the place is what nature gave it-a labyrinth of ravines and dense forest standing inside the fortifications, obstructing the besiegers and stopping their shot, while outside the earthworks the same forest has been felled, so as to make most of the way a mass of tangled tops where the enemy would have to approach.” At 4 A.M. the following morning, Captain John J. Smith of the First Louisiana Engineers, on temporary assignment with Company K, 42nd Massachusetts Volunteers, received orders to deploy the pontoon bridge assigned to him across Bayou Sandy (or Sandy Creek). Arriving at 2 pm after a 16 mile hot and dusty march, the 280 foot bridge was assembled under sporadic Confederate fire. In this northern portion of the Federal line were the First and Third Louisiana Native Guards. In the evening hours, near Riley Plantation, General Banks called a council of war to issue orders for a general assault the next morning. It included his intent to utilize colored troops on the right from Telegraph Road with the First and Third Louisiana Native Guards. In addition, the First Louisiana Engineers, would play a critical role in General Thomas W. Sherman’s assault at Slaughter’s Field at the center.
When the morning dawn broke on May 27, the sound of 90 Federal artillery pieces thundered across the nearly six mile line. General William Dwight, stationed along the Telegraph Road north of Port Hudson against the Mississippi River, had under his command the First and Third Louisiana Native Guards, composed entirely of black soldiers. At half past 5 am, the First and Third Louisiana Native Guard crossed the bridge, laid by the men under Captain John J. Smith, First Louisiana Engineers, in their assault on Port Hudson. The heroic assault of the First Louisiana Native Guard and the death of Captain Andre Callioux along with 308 killed, wounded, and missing would be immortalized for generations.
Several hours later, shortly after 2 P.M., Gen. T. W. Sherman ordered his division forward and 300 brave men of the First Louisiana Engineers (95th and 97th USCT) who marched in the vanguard of the attacking columns of Union soldiers. The men were unarmed, and carried long heavy poles intended to be used to span the wide ditch laying in front of the Rebel works. “A cheerless task for those poor fellows, who could not have even such assistance to their courage as the possession of a weapon would give them” recalled General Dow. The men behind them, known as the Forlorn Hope, carried planks to be thrown over the poles to create a bridge for the four Union regiments behind them to reach the enemy earthworks (6th Mich., 26th Conn., 15th NH, and 28th NY). Each line about twenty paces apart. “The poor contrabands, five or six at each pole, were put ahead of the storming column that was to go over Slaughter field. There was a sufficient number of the negroes to carry about two wagon loads of those infernal poles-green, hardwood poles, crooked and misshapen, four or six inches thick, and twenty-five feet long. Behind the negroes went the forlorn hope-men from our regiment (6th Michigan). They were ordered to carry a lot of little boards, about five feet long. The charge began at a double-quick. The first difficulty was that there were about three strong fences and the ruins of Slaughter’s house to pass. Negroes, poles, boards and soldiers, got through, but when they made their appearance on the open field they were somewhat mixed up. The rebels opened up a tremendous fire of artillery and infantry, and Slaughter field became a field of slaughter. It was expected that the negroes would carry the poles to that great ditch which is supposed by some to surround Port Hudson. There, right under the raking fire, the poles were to be laid, about four feet apart, across the ditch; then the little boards were to go on, and the stormers were to go over the bridges, Neither poles nor storming column got more than half way across the field…” (Bacon, 125)
Advancing at the “double quick,” the men moved forward across the 500 yards cluttered with felled trees, three rail fences that had to be broken down and climbed over, and a fifteen foot wide moat. As they advanced, enemy fire began to take its toll. Entering the plain, the men were swept by additional crossfire. Continuing to move forward under heavy fire and canister shot, the men of the First Louisiana Engineers threw down their poles and hugged the ground seeking cover. The Forlorn Hope discarded their boards and scrambled in all directions in search of cover. The additional columns of men behind them, armed, struggled forward.
In the hail of gunfire, General T. W. Sherman was shot and his horse killed. General Dow, now in charge, was also shot and the advance was left without a commander. In the melee of confusion and hail of gunfire, the casualties continued to mount throughout the afternoon. The afternoon assault had failed miserably. The men lay in hollows and gulches in the field until after dark, when, piecemeal, they got back into Federal lines as best they could. As the night fell, the ground was strewn with the dead and the stretcher bearers picked their way through Slaughter’s Field removing the wounded groaning in agony. (Diagram Key: A= 1st Louisiana Engineers, B= Volunteers carrying planks, C= 6th Michigan, D= 15th New Hampshire, E= 26th Connecticut, F= 128th New York, Confederate's: I= Lyle's troops moving to reinforce Steadman in the morning, II= Beal's troops moving to their right, III= Miles troops moving to their left, IV= 16th Arkansas reversing their march after repulsing Sherman to meat Augur.)
After the assault of May 27th General Dow recalled of the men of the First Louisiana Engineers, “Never were there better raw troops. Never did men under fire for the first time display more heroism.” He added, “The courage of the men was all the more marked because they, as well as their officers, could see the nature of the undertaking, and were intelligent enough to understand its difficulty.”
Captain Hoffman sent for the officers that commanded the “cotton bag battalion, and bridge makers who started with the storming column" and the officers were told that they were all in danger of being hanged for the action and were ordered to retrieve the cotton bags and pieces of bridge. The cotton bags, balks and chesses had been thrown down and piled up as soon as the enemy’s bullets began to come and Gen. Dwight insisted that the assault had been jeopardized because of it.
"It takes men of more than ordinary courage to engage in such work, without even a revolver or a bayonet to defend themselves against the sallies of any enemy's troops. Nevertheless this Engineer Regiment of the Black Phalanx performed the duty under such trying and perilous circumstances. Many times they went forward at a double-quick to to do duty in the most dangerous place during the engagement [Port Hudson], perhaps to build a redoubt or breastworks behind a brigade, or to blow up a bastion of the enemy's. "They but reminded the looker on." said a correspondent of a western newspaper, "of just so many cattle going to a slaughterhouse." - The Black Phalanx, 1892.
Brigadier-General Dwight became the division commander after the loss of General T.W. Sherman during the failed assault of May 27. In the days afterward, a plan was made for a second assault in which the First Louisiana Engineers would also play a role. This plan was referred to as the Cotton Bag Plan.
"HEAD-QUARTERS SECOND DIVISION,
SPECIAL ORDERS, NINETEENTH ARMY CORPS,
No. 32. Before Port Hudson, June 11, 1863.
The following is the order of attack upon the enemy’s works by this division:
1. Bags filled with cotton and fascines will be prepared and places at or near the covered way at or near the white house mortar battery.
2. General Nickerson will detail two hundred men to carry these bags, to be closely followed by one hundred more, to pick up those which may be dropped.
A detail of the First Louisiana Engineers will carry the fascines.
3. The troops will be held in hand, and prepared to move immediately to such point of assault as the Brigadier-General commanding shall designate.
…
By order of Brigadier-General Dwight.
WICKHAM HOFFMAN, A.A.G.
Positions of the First Louisiana Engineers were designated in the following order.
"HEAD-QUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF THE GULF
Before Port Hudson, June 13, 1863
SPECIAL ORDERS,
No. 140. EXTRACT.
A General assault upon the enemy works at Port Hudson will be made to-morrow morning, 14th inst. The following directions will be observed, and the following information is given for the benefit of those principally concerned: …A detachment of the First Louisiana Engineers, under Captain Jones, has been directed to report to General Grover, with entrenching tools and sand bags, to take position, unless otherwise ordered by him, near the twelve-pounder rifle battery.
An officer, to be designated by Colonel Hodge, will report to General Augur with a detachment of the First Louisiana Engineers, and, with entrenching tools and sand bags, to take position, unless otherwise ordered by General Augur, near Holcomb’s Battery, on the road leading from his head-quarters to Port Hudson.
General Dwight, with his command,…A detachment of the First Louisiana Engineers, provided with intrenching tools and sand bags, will report to General Dwight, and take position, unless otherwise ordered by him, on the road on our extreme left, leading to Port Hudson, as near the works as cover may be found…
A reserve of engineer troops, under Colonel Hodge, with tools and sand bags, will be stationed near General Augur’s headquarters….
By Command of Major-General Banks.
(Signed) RICHARD B. IRWIN, A.A.G.
On the left of the siege lines, near the Mississippi River, was a high fortified bluff called the citadel. At the foot, “was a deep ravine about three hundred yards wide, a miry little bayou in its middle, the valley being bounded on our side by a bluff almost as high as the opposite one in which was the citadel.” That point became the focus of the next assault. Captain Bailey, Dwight’s Chief Engineer, brought in the men to dig rifle pits and men of the 6th Michigan were provided as a guard for the working party. It was said of Bailey that “No man ever had less sense of the difference between right and wrong, or less sympathy for suffering than Bailey had.” That he “believed more religiously than Bailey did in the necessity of cruelty and atrocious wickedness to make his importance felt” and was often referred to as a “negro driver” as he supervised the men of the First Louisiana Engineers in their work. After 10 in the evening the armed men of the 6th Michigan, acting as guard, were provided with spades and picks, and were instructed to dig a trench about a foot and a half deep along the brow of the bluff towards the citadel so that “Bailey could come up with his negroes and go to work, having a place to drop down into and be safe if the citadel opened fire.” Work commenced in the moonless night as the men dug into the yellow soil.
When the sun rose on June 14th the assault commenced and the engineers, lugging tools and building materials to bridge the ditch, went forward with the thousands of blue coated infantrymen. As Confederate fire poured down upon the advancing columns, the storming parties, pioneers, and men of the engineers threw down their tools and pontoon materials and crouched down behind the sandbags and ridges for cover. Hugging the ground, the New England infantrymen knew they had only days left in their enlistments and could not be pushed forward. The numerous dead and dying filled ditches and ravines. On the left, Dwight's men advanced through the muddy ground toward the high bluff in front of the citadel. like the men in the other charges, confederate fire forced the men to hug the ground behind fascines and and other materials brought forward to cross obstacles. Infantrymen sought shelter from enemy fire in ravines, behind tree stumps, and any other item they could. By 11 A. M. the assault on the citadel came to a grinding halt. The "whiskey charge" had ended in another failure yet the high ridge in front of the citadel was now in Union hands.
"BEFORE PORT HUDSON,
June 14, 1863 -11 o’clock P.M.
Port Hudson has been assaulted, and General Dwight is now master of the place… General Dwight’s engineers, instructed and drilled by himself, are at work turning the rebel works into fortifications for us, while the General himself leads the pursuit.”
Captain Bailey was present and asked for the communication of the capture of the ridge in front of the citadel to be forwarded to Milwaukee newspapers. A great battery, was then ordered to be made under the direction of Dwight and Chief Engineer Bailey, on top of the hill where there was a rifle pit.
By the time the sun came up on the morning of June 16, the First Louisiana Engineers had erected a large battery parapet made of both cotton bales and earth alongside the rifle pit (Battery 24). Bailey, whom came out of his tent placed nearby stood in full sight of the enemy and drove the frightened men of the regiment to their task in crowds, keeping many on the top of the parapet. Several poorly clad rebels were found sitting lazily on their opposing parapet watching the men work. Bailey requested that none of the Union soldiers fire on the rebels as to not draw reprisal fire upon the engineers at work. While the men worked on the parapet the soldiers guarding them lay flat on the ground so as to not be shot at.
As Bailey superintended the construction of the earthworks he had instructed them to do all work as quietly as possible so as to not draw any enemy fire. He personally knocked down two or three of the best men when they hit their picks on something that made clinking sounds. When another man hit his pick against a spade, a loud clash was made and he ordered the guard to open fire on the rebels. Following Bailey, the men of the First Louisiana Engineers “were instantly on stampede, springing and bounding” as the sought safety. Bailey then stumbled and fell on his hands and knees and “three or four huge negroes” tumbled over him and another half dozen ran over them. One of the men storming over the pile of men stepped on Bailey’s arm and almost broke it. The men of the 6th Michigan, who had opened fire on the rebels, then fled back to safety as well. In this fashion, it is said, that Chief Engineer Joseph Bailey was wounded at Port Hudson.
More and more cotton bales came in from Baton Rouge on army wagon trains and were rolled up to the new battery by several regiments of the Louisiana Native Guard. Other elements of the Louisiana Native Guard were relegated to fatigue duty on the Union right as well. Day and night the cotton bales were piled higher and higher. The bales were placed endwise and piled side by side to give great thickness to the parapet. Federal artillery kept up monotonous and irregular fire as the construction continued. Cotton bale traverses and a large log bomb shelter with three sides were also added to what Dwight said he would call “Fort Bailey” in his honor. The most heavily armed battery of the siege, it would be noted on contemporary maps as Battery 24 rather than Fort Bailey.
During the construction Bailey drove the men of the First Louisiana Engineers with cruelty. One of the older enlisted men who did not work as quickly as he requested was knocked down with a spade and left with a terrible gash in the head. Another enlisted man who fell ill was struck in the back by Bailey with a pick and was carried off severely wounded. Quotes from Bailey during his time as Chief Engineer at Port Hudson repeatedly have him referring to the men of the First Louisiana Engineers as ni+++rs, and others calling the men “Bailey’s Ni+++rs,” while others referring to his “small army of Africans” while noting his degrading vocabulary, demeanor, and brutality towards the officers (referring to them as “ni+++r officers”) and enlisted men of the regiment. His relationship with the officers and men of the colored regiment would shift as they continued to work together for the rest of the war.
In the last days of the siege, the men of the First Louisiana Engineers dug zigzag approaches known as saps towards the enemy works at the citadel also known as the “Devil’s Elbow” by some soldiers. Six feet deep, the earth from the excavation was thrown up to the exposed side to create a parapet protecting them from enemy fire. On June 21st, 1st Lieutenant J. B. Butler, commanding Company A of the First Louisiana Engineers, was shot and killed while working in the trenches.
The cotton bale battery began opening fire on the Confederates on June 26th. Work progressed forward toward the citadel hill nearly parallel to the Mississippi River. Besides the heat and humidity, frequent rains and thunderstorms made the work especially difficult. To the right of the cotton bag battery (Fort Bailey) the trenches were dug so deep that a man could stand tall without being exposed to the enemy. By July General Banks had ordered Dwight’s entire division into the trenches near the cotton bale battery. Special orders No. 57 dated July 3, 1863 set about positioning each brigade in the trenches in preparation for an upcoming assault. Additional zig zag approaches were dug by men of the Louisiana Native Guard on the Union right as saps were laid out in front of three main strongholds of the Confederate defenses: Priest Cap, Fort Desperate, and the Citadel. All the work, done mainly at night.
In front of the Priest Cap the approach had reached thirty yards in front of the Confederate earthworks. and the process of mining was commenced at both the Priest Cap and the Citadel. Digging tunnels into the soil, gunpowder would be placed in the tunnels after they had reached underneath the Confederate earthworks when they would be exploded to create a breach. The wood framed tunnels were about four feet square and the men tunneling had to do their work on their hands and knees. Getting closer to the enemy works each day, the next assault was scheduled for July 9th.
Grant’s capture of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863 would negate the need for the third assault. Dispatches and telegrams relayed the surrender and an announcement was made to the US troops on July 7th. The Army and Navy gave a hundred gun salute and a flag of truce came out from Port Hudson, which capitulated July 9th, ending the 48 day siege, the longest in American history.
As Port Hudson was now in Union hands, orders were issued to convert the location into a fortified position under the command of Brig. Gen. Andrews. The work of razing the siege works fell to the 1st Louisiana Engineers.
"HDQRS. DEPT. OF THE GULF, NINETEENTH ARMY CORPS, Port Hudson, July 11, 1863.
Brigadier General GEORGE L. ANDREWS,
Commanding Port Hudson:
SIR: The commanding general directs as follows: The demolition of all the batteries and works of approach constructed by the United States forces for the recent reduction of Port Hudson will be commenced without delay, and carried as rapidly as practicable to completion, under the direction of the commanding officer of the place. Such of the materials as may be found serviceable will be saved, brought into Port Hudson, and turned over to the proper staff officers, who will account for them on their property returns. To enable the commander to commence this important work without delay, the First Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique, will be placed under his orders.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
RICH'D B. IRWIN,
Assistant Adjutant-General." (O.R. Vol. XXXVIII. 041. pg 633)
Sources:
Bacon, Col. Edward Savage, Among the Cotton Thieves (1867)
Blount, Jr., Russell W., The Longest Siege: Port Hudson, Louisiana, 1863 (2021)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
Throughout the day May 25, 1863, they were engaged in building breastworks across the Federal line. “Nearly all of the line of earth-work is intended to be of the zigzag kind. The ditch, where there is any, is about four feet in both depth and breadth, and the parapet is hardly high enough to hide a man immediately behind it. The chief strength of the place is what nature gave it-a labyrinth of ravines and dense forest standing inside the fortifications, obstructing the besiegers and stopping their shot, while outside the earthworks the same forest has been felled, so as to make most of the way a mass of tangled tops where the enemy would have to approach.” At 4 A.M. the following morning, Captain John J. Smith of the First Louisiana Engineers, on temporary assignment with Company K, 42nd Massachusetts Volunteers, received orders to deploy the pontoon bridge assigned to him across Bayou Sandy (or Sandy Creek). Arriving at 2 pm after a 16 mile hot and dusty march, the 280 foot bridge was assembled under sporadic Confederate fire. In this northern portion of the Federal line were the First and Third Louisiana Native Guards. In the evening hours, near Riley Plantation, General Banks called a council of war to issue orders for a general assault the next morning. It included his intent to utilize colored troops on the right from Telegraph Road with the First and Third Louisiana Native Guards. In addition, the First Louisiana Engineers, would play a critical role in General Thomas W. Sherman’s assault at Slaughter’s Field at the center.
When the morning dawn broke on May 27, the sound of 90 Federal artillery pieces thundered across the nearly six mile line. General William Dwight, stationed along the Telegraph Road north of Port Hudson against the Mississippi River, had under his command the First and Third Louisiana Native Guards, composed entirely of black soldiers. At half past 5 am, the First and Third Louisiana Native Guard crossed the bridge, laid by the men under Captain John J. Smith, First Louisiana Engineers, in their assault on Port Hudson. The heroic assault of the First Louisiana Native Guard and the death of Captain Andre Callioux along with 308 killed, wounded, and missing would be immortalized for generations.
Several hours later, shortly after 2 P.M., Gen. T. W. Sherman ordered his division forward and 300 brave men of the First Louisiana Engineers (95th and 97th USCT) who marched in the vanguard of the attacking columns of Union soldiers. The men were unarmed, and carried long heavy poles intended to be used to span the wide ditch laying in front of the Rebel works. “A cheerless task for those poor fellows, who could not have even such assistance to their courage as the possession of a weapon would give them” recalled General Dow. The men behind them, known as the Forlorn Hope, carried planks to be thrown over the poles to create a bridge for the four Union regiments behind them to reach the enemy earthworks (6th Mich., 26th Conn., 15th NH, and 28th NY). Each line about twenty paces apart. “The poor contrabands, five or six at each pole, were put ahead of the storming column that was to go over Slaughter field. There was a sufficient number of the negroes to carry about two wagon loads of those infernal poles-green, hardwood poles, crooked and misshapen, four or six inches thick, and twenty-five feet long. Behind the negroes went the forlorn hope-men from our regiment (6th Michigan). They were ordered to carry a lot of little boards, about five feet long. The charge began at a double-quick. The first difficulty was that there were about three strong fences and the ruins of Slaughter’s house to pass. Negroes, poles, boards and soldiers, got through, but when they made their appearance on the open field they were somewhat mixed up. The rebels opened up a tremendous fire of artillery and infantry, and Slaughter field became a field of slaughter. It was expected that the negroes would carry the poles to that great ditch which is supposed by some to surround Port Hudson. There, right under the raking fire, the poles were to be laid, about four feet apart, across the ditch; then the little boards were to go on, and the stormers were to go over the bridges, Neither poles nor storming column got more than half way across the field…” (Bacon, 125)
Advancing at the “double quick,” the men moved forward across the 500 yards cluttered with felled trees, three rail fences that had to be broken down and climbed over, and a fifteen foot wide moat. As they advanced, enemy fire began to take its toll. Entering the plain, the men were swept by additional crossfire. Continuing to move forward under heavy fire and canister shot, the men of the First Louisiana Engineers threw down their poles and hugged the ground seeking cover. The Forlorn Hope discarded their boards and scrambled in all directions in search of cover. The additional columns of men behind them, armed, struggled forward.
In the hail of gunfire, General T. W. Sherman was shot and his horse killed. General Dow, now in charge, was also shot and the advance was left without a commander. In the melee of confusion and hail of gunfire, the casualties continued to mount throughout the afternoon. The afternoon assault had failed miserably. The men lay in hollows and gulches in the field until after dark, when, piecemeal, they got back into Federal lines as best they could. As the night fell, the ground was strewn with the dead and the stretcher bearers picked their way through Slaughter’s Field removing the wounded groaning in agony. (Diagram Key: A= 1st Louisiana Engineers, B= Volunteers carrying planks, C= 6th Michigan, D= 15th New Hampshire, E= 26th Connecticut, F= 128th New York, Confederate's: I= Lyle's troops moving to reinforce Steadman in the morning, II= Beal's troops moving to their right, III= Miles troops moving to their left, IV= 16th Arkansas reversing their march after repulsing Sherman to meat Augur.)
After the assault of May 27th General Dow recalled of the men of the First Louisiana Engineers, “Never were there better raw troops. Never did men under fire for the first time display more heroism.” He added, “The courage of the men was all the more marked because they, as well as their officers, could see the nature of the undertaking, and were intelligent enough to understand its difficulty.”
Captain Hoffman sent for the officers that commanded the “cotton bag battalion, and bridge makers who started with the storming column" and the officers were told that they were all in danger of being hanged for the action and were ordered to retrieve the cotton bags and pieces of bridge. The cotton bags, balks and chesses had been thrown down and piled up as soon as the enemy’s bullets began to come and Gen. Dwight insisted that the assault had been jeopardized because of it.
"It takes men of more than ordinary courage to engage in such work, without even a revolver or a bayonet to defend themselves against the sallies of any enemy's troops. Nevertheless this Engineer Regiment of the Black Phalanx performed the duty under such trying and perilous circumstances. Many times they went forward at a double-quick to to do duty in the most dangerous place during the engagement [Port Hudson], perhaps to build a redoubt or breastworks behind a brigade, or to blow up a bastion of the enemy's. "They but reminded the looker on." said a correspondent of a western newspaper, "of just so many cattle going to a slaughterhouse." - The Black Phalanx, 1892.
Brigadier-General Dwight became the division commander after the loss of General T.W. Sherman during the failed assault of May 27. In the days afterward, a plan was made for a second assault in which the First Louisiana Engineers would also play a role. This plan was referred to as the Cotton Bag Plan.
"HEAD-QUARTERS SECOND DIVISION,
SPECIAL ORDERS, NINETEENTH ARMY CORPS,
No. 32. Before Port Hudson, June 11, 1863.
The following is the order of attack upon the enemy’s works by this division:
1. Bags filled with cotton and fascines will be prepared and places at or near the covered way at or near the white house mortar battery.
2. General Nickerson will detail two hundred men to carry these bags, to be closely followed by one hundred more, to pick up those which may be dropped.
A detail of the First Louisiana Engineers will carry the fascines.
3. The troops will be held in hand, and prepared to move immediately to such point of assault as the Brigadier-General commanding shall designate.
…
By order of Brigadier-General Dwight.
WICKHAM HOFFMAN, A.A.G.
Positions of the First Louisiana Engineers were designated in the following order.
"HEAD-QUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF THE GULF
Before Port Hudson, June 13, 1863
SPECIAL ORDERS,
No. 140. EXTRACT.
A General assault upon the enemy works at Port Hudson will be made to-morrow morning, 14th inst. The following directions will be observed, and the following information is given for the benefit of those principally concerned: …A detachment of the First Louisiana Engineers, under Captain Jones, has been directed to report to General Grover, with entrenching tools and sand bags, to take position, unless otherwise ordered by him, near the twelve-pounder rifle battery.
An officer, to be designated by Colonel Hodge, will report to General Augur with a detachment of the First Louisiana Engineers, and, with entrenching tools and sand bags, to take position, unless otherwise ordered by General Augur, near Holcomb’s Battery, on the road leading from his head-quarters to Port Hudson.
General Dwight, with his command,…A detachment of the First Louisiana Engineers, provided with intrenching tools and sand bags, will report to General Dwight, and take position, unless otherwise ordered by him, on the road on our extreme left, leading to Port Hudson, as near the works as cover may be found…
A reserve of engineer troops, under Colonel Hodge, with tools and sand bags, will be stationed near General Augur’s headquarters….
By Command of Major-General Banks.
(Signed) RICHARD B. IRWIN, A.A.G.
On the left of the siege lines, near the Mississippi River, was a high fortified bluff called the citadel. At the foot, “was a deep ravine about three hundred yards wide, a miry little bayou in its middle, the valley being bounded on our side by a bluff almost as high as the opposite one in which was the citadel.” That point became the focus of the next assault. Captain Bailey, Dwight’s Chief Engineer, brought in the men to dig rifle pits and men of the 6th Michigan were provided as a guard for the working party. It was said of Bailey that “No man ever had less sense of the difference between right and wrong, or less sympathy for suffering than Bailey had.” That he “believed more religiously than Bailey did in the necessity of cruelty and atrocious wickedness to make his importance felt” and was often referred to as a “negro driver” as he supervised the men of the First Louisiana Engineers in their work. After 10 in the evening the armed men of the 6th Michigan, acting as guard, were provided with spades and picks, and were instructed to dig a trench about a foot and a half deep along the brow of the bluff towards the citadel so that “Bailey could come up with his negroes and go to work, having a place to drop down into and be safe if the citadel opened fire.” Work commenced in the moonless night as the men dug into the yellow soil.
When the sun rose on June 14th the assault commenced and the engineers, lugging tools and building materials to bridge the ditch, went forward with the thousands of blue coated infantrymen. As Confederate fire poured down upon the advancing columns, the storming parties, pioneers, and men of the engineers threw down their tools and pontoon materials and crouched down behind the sandbags and ridges for cover. Hugging the ground, the New England infantrymen knew they had only days left in their enlistments and could not be pushed forward. The numerous dead and dying filled ditches and ravines. On the left, Dwight's men advanced through the muddy ground toward the high bluff in front of the citadel. like the men in the other charges, confederate fire forced the men to hug the ground behind fascines and and other materials brought forward to cross obstacles. Infantrymen sought shelter from enemy fire in ravines, behind tree stumps, and any other item they could. By 11 A. M. the assault on the citadel came to a grinding halt. The "whiskey charge" had ended in another failure yet the high ridge in front of the citadel was now in Union hands.
"BEFORE PORT HUDSON,
June 14, 1863 -11 o’clock P.M.
Port Hudson has been assaulted, and General Dwight is now master of the place… General Dwight’s engineers, instructed and drilled by himself, are at work turning the rebel works into fortifications for us, while the General himself leads the pursuit.”
Captain Bailey was present and asked for the communication of the capture of the ridge in front of the citadel to be forwarded to Milwaukee newspapers. A great battery, was then ordered to be made under the direction of Dwight and Chief Engineer Bailey, on top of the hill where there was a rifle pit.
By the time the sun came up on the morning of June 16, the First Louisiana Engineers had erected a large battery parapet made of both cotton bales and earth alongside the rifle pit (Battery 24). Bailey, whom came out of his tent placed nearby stood in full sight of the enemy and drove the frightened men of the regiment to their task in crowds, keeping many on the top of the parapet. Several poorly clad rebels were found sitting lazily on their opposing parapet watching the men work. Bailey requested that none of the Union soldiers fire on the rebels as to not draw reprisal fire upon the engineers at work. While the men worked on the parapet the soldiers guarding them lay flat on the ground so as to not be shot at.
As Bailey superintended the construction of the earthworks he had instructed them to do all work as quietly as possible so as to not draw any enemy fire. He personally knocked down two or three of the best men when they hit their picks on something that made clinking sounds. When another man hit his pick against a spade, a loud clash was made and he ordered the guard to open fire on the rebels. Following Bailey, the men of the First Louisiana Engineers “were instantly on stampede, springing and bounding” as the sought safety. Bailey then stumbled and fell on his hands and knees and “three or four huge negroes” tumbled over him and another half dozen ran over them. One of the men storming over the pile of men stepped on Bailey’s arm and almost broke it. The men of the 6th Michigan, who had opened fire on the rebels, then fled back to safety as well. In this fashion, it is said, that Chief Engineer Joseph Bailey was wounded at Port Hudson.
More and more cotton bales came in from Baton Rouge on army wagon trains and were rolled up to the new battery by several regiments of the Louisiana Native Guard. Other elements of the Louisiana Native Guard were relegated to fatigue duty on the Union right as well. Day and night the cotton bales were piled higher and higher. The bales were placed endwise and piled side by side to give great thickness to the parapet. Federal artillery kept up monotonous and irregular fire as the construction continued. Cotton bale traverses and a large log bomb shelter with three sides were also added to what Dwight said he would call “Fort Bailey” in his honor. The most heavily armed battery of the siege, it would be noted on contemporary maps as Battery 24 rather than Fort Bailey.
During the construction Bailey drove the men of the First Louisiana Engineers with cruelty. One of the older enlisted men who did not work as quickly as he requested was knocked down with a spade and left with a terrible gash in the head. Another enlisted man who fell ill was struck in the back by Bailey with a pick and was carried off severely wounded. Quotes from Bailey during his time as Chief Engineer at Port Hudson repeatedly have him referring to the men of the First Louisiana Engineers as ni+++rs, and others calling the men “Bailey’s Ni+++rs,” while others referring to his “small army of Africans” while noting his degrading vocabulary, demeanor, and brutality towards the officers (referring to them as “ni+++r officers”) and enlisted men of the regiment. His relationship with the officers and men of the colored regiment would shift as they continued to work together for the rest of the war.
In the last days of the siege, the men of the First Louisiana Engineers dug zigzag approaches known as saps towards the enemy works at the citadel also known as the “Devil’s Elbow” by some soldiers. Six feet deep, the earth from the excavation was thrown up to the exposed side to create a parapet protecting them from enemy fire. On June 21st, 1st Lieutenant J. B. Butler, commanding Company A of the First Louisiana Engineers, was shot and killed while working in the trenches.
The cotton bale battery began opening fire on the Confederates on June 26th. Work progressed forward toward the citadel hill nearly parallel to the Mississippi River. Besides the heat and humidity, frequent rains and thunderstorms made the work especially difficult. To the right of the cotton bag battery (Fort Bailey) the trenches were dug so deep that a man could stand tall without being exposed to the enemy. By July General Banks had ordered Dwight’s entire division into the trenches near the cotton bale battery. Special orders No. 57 dated July 3, 1863 set about positioning each brigade in the trenches in preparation for an upcoming assault. Additional zig zag approaches were dug by men of the Louisiana Native Guard on the Union right as saps were laid out in front of three main strongholds of the Confederate defenses: Priest Cap, Fort Desperate, and the Citadel. All the work, done mainly at night.
In front of the Priest Cap the approach had reached thirty yards in front of the Confederate earthworks. and the process of mining was commenced at both the Priest Cap and the Citadel. Digging tunnels into the soil, gunpowder would be placed in the tunnels after they had reached underneath the Confederate earthworks when they would be exploded to create a breach. The wood framed tunnels were about four feet square and the men tunneling had to do their work on their hands and knees. Getting closer to the enemy works each day, the next assault was scheduled for July 9th.
Grant’s capture of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863 would negate the need for the third assault. Dispatches and telegrams relayed the surrender and an announcement was made to the US troops on July 7th. The Army and Navy gave a hundred gun salute and a flag of truce came out from Port Hudson, which capitulated July 9th, ending the 48 day siege, the longest in American history.
As Port Hudson was now in Union hands, orders were issued to convert the location into a fortified position under the command of Brig. Gen. Andrews. The work of razing the siege works fell to the 1st Louisiana Engineers.
"HDQRS. DEPT. OF THE GULF, NINETEENTH ARMY CORPS, Port Hudson, July 11, 1863.
Brigadier General GEORGE L. ANDREWS,
Commanding Port Hudson:
SIR: The commanding general directs as follows: The demolition of all the batteries and works of approach constructed by the United States forces for the recent reduction of Port Hudson will be commenced without delay, and carried as rapidly as practicable to completion, under the direction of the commanding officer of the place. Such of the materials as may be found serviceable will be saved, brought into Port Hudson, and turned over to the proper staff officers, who will account for them on their property returns. To enable the commander to commence this important work without delay, the First Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique, will be placed under his orders.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
RICH'D B. IRWIN,
Assistant Adjutant-General." (O.R. Vol. XXXVIII. 041. pg 633)
Sources:
Bacon, Col. Edward Savage, Among the Cotton Thieves (1867)
Blount, Jr., Russell W., The Longest Siege: Port Hudson, Louisiana, 1863 (2021)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
1st and 3rd Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique
GENERAL ORDERS No. 47.
HEADQUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF THE GULF, 19TH ARMY CORPS
Before Port Hudson, June 6, 1863.
I. The regiments of infantry of the Corps d'Afrique, authorized by General Orders, No. 44 [No. 40], current series, will consist of ten companies, each having the following minimum organization: 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1 first sergeant, 4 sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 buglers, 40 privates. To the above may be added hereafter, at the discretion of the commanding general, 4 corporals and 42 privates, thus increasing the strength to the maximum fixed by law for a company of infantry. The regimental organization will be that fixed by law for a regiment of infantry.
II. The commissary and assistant commissaries of musters will muster the second lieutenant into service as soon as he is commissioned; the first lieutenant when 30 men are enlisted, and the captain when the minimum organization is completed.
III. The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Regiments of Louisiana Native Guards will hereafter be known as the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Regiments of Infantry of the Corps d'Afrique.
IV. The regiment of colored troops in process of organization in the District of Pensacola will be known as the Fifth Regiment of Infantry of the Corps d'Afrique.
V. The regiments now being raised under the direction of Brig. Gen. Daniel Ullmann, and at present known as the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Regiments of Ullmann's brigade, will be respectively designated as the Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Regiments of Infantry of the Corps d'Afrique.
VI. The First Regiment of Louisiana Engineers, Col. Justin Hodge, will hereafter be known as the First Regiment of Engineers of the Corps d'Afrique.
By command of Major-General Banks:
RICH'D B. IRWIN,
Assistant Adjutant-General.
--------
ENGINEER OFFICE, Port Hudson, July 13, 1863.
Brigadier General CHARLES P. STONE:
GENERAL: With reference to the engineer organization in this department, I have the honor to submit the following report:
These troops, I understand, to be under the immediate command of the chief engineer: Company K, Forty-second Massachusetts (detached), Lieutenant Harding commanding, pontoniers; Company K, Fifty-third Massachusetts (detached), Captain Breman commanding, pioneers; First Louisiana Engineers (colored), Colonel J. Hodge commanding, civil and engineer assistants.
The pontoniers (about 30 men for duty) have a pontoon bridge of about 100 feet, with rigging, &etc., complete, in wagons furnished by the quartermaster. They are under orders to join General Weitzel, with 200 feet of bridge, and turn over the rest to Colonel J. Hodge, First Louisiana Engineers. Their time of service expires this week. After the present expedition, I intend to appoint the company of Louisiana Engineers commanded by Captain Smith pontoniers in their stead, and transfer the bridge and train to them.
The pontoniers (about 80 men for duty) have about two wagon-loads of tools and materials, forming part of their train of six 4-horse wagons. They are usually kept with the advanced guard for repairing roads, bridges, &c., under the direction of the engineer's assistants. I understand they have proved very useful in this capacity, including many stand they have proved very useful in this capacity, including many mechanics among them. They are at Mount Pleasant Landing, awaiting transportation to join General Grover. I believe their term of service expires in August.
The First Louisiana Engineers (colored) number about 800 men for duty, the colonel reports. They are well supplied with intrenching tools, and have also a fair supply of other engineer materials, such as rope, nails, spikes, chests of tools, &c., for all of which the colonel is responsible, and issues to engineer assistants and general officers on their receipts, by order of the chief engineer. I intend they shall remain here for the present, unless otherwise ordered by Major Houston, and have ordered them to collect all engineer property in the trenches, and then to furnish General Andrews any tools, materials, and working parties he may apply for, till further orders.
The engineer assistants are Captain Long, First Louisiana Engineers, and Sergeant Nutting, Rhode Island Cavalry (detached); 1 surveyor, 2 topographical engineers, and 2 photographers. Captain Long will accompany headquarters, to direct the prisoners in their duties, assisted by Sergeant Nutting. The 2 topographical engineers will also move with headquarters, to make and plot reconnaissances. The surveyor will remain here, to begin a survey of our lines and the enemy's. I have asked Major Houston to send other surveyors from New Orleans to assist him. One photographer will remain here, to take the views already ordered, and the other will probably go to New Orleans, to print the impressing with greater facility.
There is also an engineer quartermaster who draws, by order of the chief engineer, all necessary articles from the quartermaster's department, and receipts and accounts for them.
Respectfully submitted.
JOHN C. PALFREY,
Captain, U. S. Engineers.
(Source: OR: Serial 041 Page 0639 W. FLA, S. ALA., LA, TEX., N. MEX. Chapter XXXVIII)
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In a July 27th 1863 letter to request a leave of absence to address an issue in his home town in Connecticut, Colonel Justin Hodge penned the strength of the First Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique at;
"2 Field Officers
2 Staff Officers
15 Line Officers
633 Men, Exclusive of Company B on detached service at Donaldsonville."
Captain John J. Smith commanded Company B and was placed in charge of the pontoon train. The pontoon bridge on the Bayou Lafourche connected the town of Donaldsonville and Fort Butler at the mouth of the Mississippi River.
Just a few weeks later, as men continued to enlist, Colonel Justin Hodge's First Louisiana Engineers numbered about a thousand men at the surrender of Port Hudson. It had then become policy for U.S. Colored regiments to be half the size of other regiments to lower the officer-to-enlisted man ration in an effort to ensure success. Therefore, on August 26, 1863, Special Order 218, Department of the Gulf, split the regiment into two parts. The 1st Regiment Engineers Corps d'Afrique would retain Col. Hodge as its commander, and half the companies were designated as the 3rd Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique under command of Colonel George Derogue Robinson. Some officers remained with their companies in the new regiment designation, while others were recruited from regiments at the Siege of Port Hudson such as the 75th New York Volunteer Infantry.
On September 3rd, the regiment left Algiers, Louisiana by the steamer Nassau towing the schooner Okolance with the pontoon train for an expedition to the Sabine River on the border of Texas. The nine day expedition was a failure due to rough weather and other obstacles. On the return from the failed expedition, 300 mules belonging to the pontoon train and brigade were thrown overboard in the rough sea by men of another regiment.
From the 16th of September to December 16th, 1863, the regiment took part in the Second Bayou Teche Campaign. They spent the autumn months removing obstructions from the Bayou Teche and repaired roads and bridges between Brashear City and Opelousas.
Excerpts from Captain Chamberlin’s journal described the labor in removing sunken boats as obstructions in the Vermillion Bayou, Louisiana. October 5: “…followed up the army…put up our tents and prepared to get the Steamer out…” October 6: “Worked all day on the sunken Boat: removed the engines and everything moveable and lightened the Boat so it floated. Quite an extensive job.” October 7: “Pulled the old wreck…out of the channel early in the morning. Four companies marched up 2 miles to where the Rebel Steamer Hart blockades the stream. This is our next job and is likely to prove a very formidable one.” October 8: “…Removed all that we could from the deck…powerful boilers below the deck…” October 9: Put a big blast of Powder under the farther end of the boilers and ended them completely over and dragged them off the boat…” October 10: “…work progressed slowly on the Hart, we shall have to blow her to pieces.”
Besides the work removing the sunken boats from the bayou, the engineer regiment had additional work unloading commissary stores from the U.S. Steamer Red Chief. A barge with 100,000 rations was also unloaded by two companies at a landing below the wreck site. On October 12, the steamer Brown came up the Vermillion Bayou and pulled apart the wreck. The Brown then moved upstream to New Iberia, the first boat to do so in nearly a year.
New recruits were also enlisted into the regiment during the week of hard labor. On the 9th, writing “I went across the Bayou and back into the country and got some eggs, honey, ducks and 10 recruits for the Regt.” The next day, “Made out Enlistment Papers for 12 Recruits and mustered them into service in the A.M.” On the following day, Capt. Chamberlin enlisted six more men and recorded that “Gen. Banks came down at midnight on his way to New Orleans.” The regiment also completed a “good bridge across the stream and a part of one company with 72 feet of the pontoon bridge have gone back to [New Orleans] and we shall probably remain here until the wagons come back from New Iberia..”
By this time the men had finally been issued uniforms and arms. However, the clothing issued was likely obsolete or captured uniform items as they did not meet U.S. Army regulations for engineer regiments. Rather than the blue cloth and yellow (buff) trim (the standard issue which would later be provided in the coming months), the men were initially issued uniforms that appeared similar to that of the Confederate Washington Artillery. The uniforms were described as “…very fancy uniforms for the Engineer Corps. A jacket and pants of gray cloth, the pants with a red cord on the seams, the jacket with red cuffs and collar and scarlet caps…” Col. Dudley, Assistant Inspector General of the Department of the Gulf gave a Regimental Inspection and “the men made a very credible appearance.” The men were also issued long awaited arms; smoothbore Belgian muskets.
Winter (Dec. 18-Feb of 1864) was spent being engaged in throwing up earthworks at Berwick City. All leisure time was spent in company and battalion drill. Companies B and I were detached to Pass Cavallo, Texas moving artillery and unloading government vessels.
Sources:
Frasier, Donald S., Blood on the Bayou: Vicksburg, Port Hudson, and the Trans-Mississippi (2015)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
HEADQUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF THE GULF, 19TH ARMY CORPS
Before Port Hudson, June 6, 1863.
I. The regiments of infantry of the Corps d'Afrique, authorized by General Orders, No. 44 [No. 40], current series, will consist of ten companies, each having the following minimum organization: 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1 first sergeant, 4 sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 buglers, 40 privates. To the above may be added hereafter, at the discretion of the commanding general, 4 corporals and 42 privates, thus increasing the strength to the maximum fixed by law for a company of infantry. The regimental organization will be that fixed by law for a regiment of infantry.
II. The commissary and assistant commissaries of musters will muster the second lieutenant into service as soon as he is commissioned; the first lieutenant when 30 men are enlisted, and the captain when the minimum organization is completed.
III. The First, Second, Third, and Fourth Regiments of Louisiana Native Guards will hereafter be known as the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Regiments of Infantry of the Corps d'Afrique.
IV. The regiment of colored troops in process of organization in the District of Pensacola will be known as the Fifth Regiment of Infantry of the Corps d'Afrique.
V. The regiments now being raised under the direction of Brig. Gen. Daniel Ullmann, and at present known as the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Regiments of Ullmann's brigade, will be respectively designated as the Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Regiments of Infantry of the Corps d'Afrique.
VI. The First Regiment of Louisiana Engineers, Col. Justin Hodge, will hereafter be known as the First Regiment of Engineers of the Corps d'Afrique.
By command of Major-General Banks:
RICH'D B. IRWIN,
Assistant Adjutant-General.
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ENGINEER OFFICE, Port Hudson, July 13, 1863.
Brigadier General CHARLES P. STONE:
GENERAL: With reference to the engineer organization in this department, I have the honor to submit the following report:
These troops, I understand, to be under the immediate command of the chief engineer: Company K, Forty-second Massachusetts (detached), Lieutenant Harding commanding, pontoniers; Company K, Fifty-third Massachusetts (detached), Captain Breman commanding, pioneers; First Louisiana Engineers (colored), Colonel J. Hodge commanding, civil and engineer assistants.
The pontoniers (about 30 men for duty) have a pontoon bridge of about 100 feet, with rigging, &etc., complete, in wagons furnished by the quartermaster. They are under orders to join General Weitzel, with 200 feet of bridge, and turn over the rest to Colonel J. Hodge, First Louisiana Engineers. Their time of service expires this week. After the present expedition, I intend to appoint the company of Louisiana Engineers commanded by Captain Smith pontoniers in their stead, and transfer the bridge and train to them.
The pontoniers (about 80 men for duty) have about two wagon-loads of tools and materials, forming part of their train of six 4-horse wagons. They are usually kept with the advanced guard for repairing roads, bridges, &c., under the direction of the engineer's assistants. I understand they have proved very useful in this capacity, including many stand they have proved very useful in this capacity, including many mechanics among them. They are at Mount Pleasant Landing, awaiting transportation to join General Grover. I believe their term of service expires in August.
The First Louisiana Engineers (colored) number about 800 men for duty, the colonel reports. They are well supplied with intrenching tools, and have also a fair supply of other engineer materials, such as rope, nails, spikes, chests of tools, &c., for all of which the colonel is responsible, and issues to engineer assistants and general officers on their receipts, by order of the chief engineer. I intend they shall remain here for the present, unless otherwise ordered by Major Houston, and have ordered them to collect all engineer property in the trenches, and then to furnish General Andrews any tools, materials, and working parties he may apply for, till further orders.
The engineer assistants are Captain Long, First Louisiana Engineers, and Sergeant Nutting, Rhode Island Cavalry (detached); 1 surveyor, 2 topographical engineers, and 2 photographers. Captain Long will accompany headquarters, to direct the prisoners in their duties, assisted by Sergeant Nutting. The 2 topographical engineers will also move with headquarters, to make and plot reconnaissances. The surveyor will remain here, to begin a survey of our lines and the enemy's. I have asked Major Houston to send other surveyors from New Orleans to assist him. One photographer will remain here, to take the views already ordered, and the other will probably go to New Orleans, to print the impressing with greater facility.
There is also an engineer quartermaster who draws, by order of the chief engineer, all necessary articles from the quartermaster's department, and receipts and accounts for them.
Respectfully submitted.
JOHN C. PALFREY,
Captain, U. S. Engineers.
(Source: OR: Serial 041 Page 0639 W. FLA, S. ALA., LA, TEX., N. MEX. Chapter XXXVIII)
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In a July 27th 1863 letter to request a leave of absence to address an issue in his home town in Connecticut, Colonel Justin Hodge penned the strength of the First Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique at;
"2 Field Officers
2 Staff Officers
15 Line Officers
633 Men, Exclusive of Company B on detached service at Donaldsonville."
Captain John J. Smith commanded Company B and was placed in charge of the pontoon train. The pontoon bridge on the Bayou Lafourche connected the town of Donaldsonville and Fort Butler at the mouth of the Mississippi River.
Just a few weeks later, as men continued to enlist, Colonel Justin Hodge's First Louisiana Engineers numbered about a thousand men at the surrender of Port Hudson. It had then become policy for U.S. Colored regiments to be half the size of other regiments to lower the officer-to-enlisted man ration in an effort to ensure success. Therefore, on August 26, 1863, Special Order 218, Department of the Gulf, split the regiment into two parts. The 1st Regiment Engineers Corps d'Afrique would retain Col. Hodge as its commander, and half the companies were designated as the 3rd Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique under command of Colonel George Derogue Robinson. Some officers remained with their companies in the new regiment designation, while others were recruited from regiments at the Siege of Port Hudson such as the 75th New York Volunteer Infantry.
On September 3rd, the regiment left Algiers, Louisiana by the steamer Nassau towing the schooner Okolance with the pontoon train for an expedition to the Sabine River on the border of Texas. The nine day expedition was a failure due to rough weather and other obstacles. On the return from the failed expedition, 300 mules belonging to the pontoon train and brigade were thrown overboard in the rough sea by men of another regiment.
From the 16th of September to December 16th, 1863, the regiment took part in the Second Bayou Teche Campaign. They spent the autumn months removing obstructions from the Bayou Teche and repaired roads and bridges between Brashear City and Opelousas.
Excerpts from Captain Chamberlin’s journal described the labor in removing sunken boats as obstructions in the Vermillion Bayou, Louisiana. October 5: “…followed up the army…put up our tents and prepared to get the Steamer out…” October 6: “Worked all day on the sunken Boat: removed the engines and everything moveable and lightened the Boat so it floated. Quite an extensive job.” October 7: “Pulled the old wreck…out of the channel early in the morning. Four companies marched up 2 miles to where the Rebel Steamer Hart blockades the stream. This is our next job and is likely to prove a very formidable one.” October 8: “…Removed all that we could from the deck…powerful boilers below the deck…” October 9: Put a big blast of Powder under the farther end of the boilers and ended them completely over and dragged them off the boat…” October 10: “…work progressed slowly on the Hart, we shall have to blow her to pieces.”
Besides the work removing the sunken boats from the bayou, the engineer regiment had additional work unloading commissary stores from the U.S. Steamer Red Chief. A barge with 100,000 rations was also unloaded by two companies at a landing below the wreck site. On October 12, the steamer Brown came up the Vermillion Bayou and pulled apart the wreck. The Brown then moved upstream to New Iberia, the first boat to do so in nearly a year.
New recruits were also enlisted into the regiment during the week of hard labor. On the 9th, writing “I went across the Bayou and back into the country and got some eggs, honey, ducks and 10 recruits for the Regt.” The next day, “Made out Enlistment Papers for 12 Recruits and mustered them into service in the A.M.” On the following day, Capt. Chamberlin enlisted six more men and recorded that “Gen. Banks came down at midnight on his way to New Orleans.” The regiment also completed a “good bridge across the stream and a part of one company with 72 feet of the pontoon bridge have gone back to [New Orleans] and we shall probably remain here until the wagons come back from New Iberia..”
By this time the men had finally been issued uniforms and arms. However, the clothing issued was likely obsolete or captured uniform items as they did not meet U.S. Army regulations for engineer regiments. Rather than the blue cloth and yellow (buff) trim (the standard issue which would later be provided in the coming months), the men were initially issued uniforms that appeared similar to that of the Confederate Washington Artillery. The uniforms were described as “…very fancy uniforms for the Engineer Corps. A jacket and pants of gray cloth, the pants with a red cord on the seams, the jacket with red cuffs and collar and scarlet caps…” Col. Dudley, Assistant Inspector General of the Department of the Gulf gave a Regimental Inspection and “the men made a very credible appearance.” The men were also issued long awaited arms; smoothbore Belgian muskets.
Winter (Dec. 18-Feb of 1864) was spent being engaged in throwing up earthworks at Berwick City. All leisure time was spent in company and battalion drill. Companies B and I were detached to Pass Cavallo, Texas moving artillery and unloading government vessels.
Sources:
Frasier, Donald S., Blood on the Bayou: Vicksburg, Port Hudson, and the Trans-Mississippi (2015)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
The Red River Campaign and Re-Designation
General Butler, determined to capture the "bread basket" of central Louisiana and take the Federal Army to capture Shreveport, initiated a campaign that would see a joint operation between the U.S. Army and the U.S. Navy's Mississippi Squadron under command of Admiral Porter. From March 10 to April 19, 1864 the two forces moved up the Red River. The 3rd Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique was joined by the 5th Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique as the Engineer Brigade under the overall command of Gen. Joseph Bailey.
The regiment left Berwick City and marched north to Alexandria and then and westward averaging 15 miles per day. They repaired roads and laid pontoon bridges at the Vermillion and Cane rivers for the Federal Forces to cross. The regiment passed through Natchitoches and was at the rear of the column when regiments at the front engaged in the Battle of Pleasant Hill. During the march, 257 former slaves joined the Union Army as it passed through the region.
On the retreat back to Alexandria, From April 9 to 24, the regiment laid pontoon bridges over the Red River and at Grand Ecore. In an effort to fortify the defensive position alongside the Navy's Mississippi Squadron, they engaged in felling timber and constructing earthworks.
Special Order No. 16 re-designated the regiments in the Corps d'Afrique during the return march. On April 9th, the 3rd Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique became the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry. The 5th Regt. Engineers, Corps d'Afrique became the 99th U.S. Colored Infantry. Both regiments, although re-designated as infantry, remained in engineer service for the duration of the war.
"ORDERS Numbers 16. NEW ORLEANS, LA., April 4, 1864.
All troops of African descent in the Department of the Gulf will hereafter be designated as regiment of U. S. cavalry, heavy artillery, light artillery, of infantry (colored). Such regiments as may hereafter be put in progress of organization will be report to Brigadier General L. Thomas, Adjutant-General U. S. Army, at Vicksburg, Miss., in order that they may receive their proper numbers.
CAVALRY.
First Cavalry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Fourth.
HEAVY ARTILLERY.
First Regiment Heavy Artillery, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventh.
First and Second Battalion, Fourteenth Regiment Rhode Island Heavy Artillery, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighth.
First Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-third.
Second Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-fourth.
Third Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-fifth.
Fourth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-sixth.
Fifth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-seventh.
Sixth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-eighth.
Seventh Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-ninth.
Eighth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eightieth.
Ninth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty-first.
Tenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty-second.
Eleventh Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty-third.
Twelfth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty-fourth.
Thirteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- fifth.
Fourteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- sixth.
Sixteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- seventh.
Seventeenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- eighth.
Eighteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- ninth.
Nineteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninetieth.
Twentieth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety- first.
Twenty-second Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety- second.
Twenty-fifth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety- third.
Twenty-sixth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety- fourth.
First Regiment Engineers, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety-fifth.
Second Regiment Engineers, Corps d" Afrique, as the Ninety-sixth.
Third Regiment Engineers, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety-seventh.
Fourth Regiment Engineers, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety-eighth.
Fifth Regiment Engineers, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety-ninth.
By order of the Secretary of War:
L. THOMAS,
Adjutant-General." (Serial 125 Page 0213 UNION AUTHORITIES)
Sources:
Robertson, Henry O., The Red River Campaign and Its Toll: 69 Bloody Days in Louisiana, March-May 1864 (2016)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
The regiment left Berwick City and marched north to Alexandria and then and westward averaging 15 miles per day. They repaired roads and laid pontoon bridges at the Vermillion and Cane rivers for the Federal Forces to cross. The regiment passed through Natchitoches and was at the rear of the column when regiments at the front engaged in the Battle of Pleasant Hill. During the march, 257 former slaves joined the Union Army as it passed through the region.
On the retreat back to Alexandria, From April 9 to 24, the regiment laid pontoon bridges over the Red River and at Grand Ecore. In an effort to fortify the defensive position alongside the Navy's Mississippi Squadron, they engaged in felling timber and constructing earthworks.
Special Order No. 16 re-designated the regiments in the Corps d'Afrique during the return march. On April 9th, the 3rd Regiment Engineers, Corps d'Afrique became the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry. The 5th Regt. Engineers, Corps d'Afrique became the 99th U.S. Colored Infantry. Both regiments, although re-designated as infantry, remained in engineer service for the duration of the war.
"ORDERS Numbers 16. NEW ORLEANS, LA., April 4, 1864.
All troops of African descent in the Department of the Gulf will hereafter be designated as regiment of U. S. cavalry, heavy artillery, light artillery, of infantry (colored). Such regiments as may hereafter be put in progress of organization will be report to Brigadier General L. Thomas, Adjutant-General U. S. Army, at Vicksburg, Miss., in order that they may receive their proper numbers.
CAVALRY.
First Cavalry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Fourth.
HEAVY ARTILLERY.
First Regiment Heavy Artillery, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventh.
First and Second Battalion, Fourteenth Regiment Rhode Island Heavy Artillery, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighth.
First Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-third.
Second Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-fourth.
Third Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-fifth.
Fourth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-sixth.
Fifth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-seventh.
Sixth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-eighth.
Seventh Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Seventy-ninth.
Eighth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eightieth.
Ninth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty-first.
Tenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty-second.
Eleventh Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty-third.
Twelfth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty-fourth.
Thirteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- fifth.
Fourteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- sixth.
Sixteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- seventh.
Seventeenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- eighth.
Eighteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Eighty- ninth.
Nineteenth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninetieth.
Twentieth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety- first.
Twenty-second Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety- second.
Twenty-fifth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety- third.
Twenty-sixth Regiment Infantry, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety- fourth.
First Regiment Engineers, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety-fifth.
Second Regiment Engineers, Corps d" Afrique, as the Ninety-sixth.
Third Regiment Engineers, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety-seventh.
Fourth Regiment Engineers, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety-eighth.
Fifth Regiment Engineers, Corps d"Afrique, as the Ninety-ninth.
By order of the Secretary of War:
L. THOMAS,
Adjutant-General." (Serial 125 Page 0213 UNION AUTHORITIES)
Sources:
Robertson, Henry O., The Red River Campaign and Its Toll: 69 Bloody Days in Louisiana, March-May 1864 (2016)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
Bailey's Dam, the Ship Bridge and Morganza
April 25-May 21: Accompanying General Banks' Army on the Red River Campaign were 10 gunboats and 20 transports of Admiral Porter's Mississippi River Squadron which became stranded above Alexandria when the water level of the Red River became to low to navigate over the rapids. To rescue the trapped vessels, men of the 97th USCT (Col. George D. Robinson) and 99th USCT (Lt. Col. Uri B. Pearsall) made up the Engineer Brigade commanded by Col. Robinson under direction of Chief Engineer of the XIX Corps, Lieut. Col. Joseph Bailey, constructed two dams across the river to raise the water level in order for the ships to pass. Work started on April 30 and by May 8, the water level had risen five and a half feet. The lower rapids dam consisted of a tree dam on the east bank, a series of crib boxes on the west bank, and a section in the middle made of four sunken coal barges anchored to the dams. Assisting the engineer brigade (97th and 99th USCT) were the men from the 29th Maine Volunteer Infantry who worked on the tree dam on the east bank. By May 13th, the ships had passed safely over the rapids and on to safety.
As the army fell back towards the Mississippi River, the regiment laid pontoon bridges at Yellow Bayou and Choctaw Bayou. On May 18th, 1864, in the last phase of Bank's retreat, the Army reached the Atchafalaya River. Fighting took place at Simmesport, Louisiana and the regiment built approaches and laid pontoon sections for Bailey's "steamboat bridge" composed of 22 steamboats anchored side-by-side, to allow Banks' Army to cross the swollen river. As Confederates attacked the Army waiting to cross, men of Company C, 97th USCT were brought up to the Yellow Bayou, but did not engage the enemy. An additional 300 formerly enslaved men enlisted into the U.S. Colored Troops as the Army fell back.
Reaching Morganza on the banks of the Mississippi River, the 97th USCT built a fort by converting the levee into breastworks and cut embrasures for artillery pieces. Hurdles were made and timber was cut to strengthen the earthworks. The location became infamous for its miserable conditions of extreme heat, excessive rain and epidemics of various diseases. The regiment left Morganza aboard the U.S. transport James Butler and returned to Carrollton, Louisiana. At Camp Parapet, Carrollton, Louisiana they engaged in infantry drill and drill in "practical operations of a siege including trenching, saps, parallels, approaches" and deploying pontoon bridges using Duane's Manual for Engineer Troops." During this time, the regiment utilized Lake Pontchartrain for pontoon drill and was rearmed with 1861 Springfield rifled muskets.
Sources:
Robertson, Henry O., The Red River Campaign and Its Toll: 69 Bloody Days in Louisiana, March-May 1864 (2016)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
Bailey's Dam, www.crt.state.la.us/cultural-development/archaeology/discover-archaeology/baileysdam
As the army fell back towards the Mississippi River, the regiment laid pontoon bridges at Yellow Bayou and Choctaw Bayou. On May 18th, 1864, in the last phase of Bank's retreat, the Army reached the Atchafalaya River. Fighting took place at Simmesport, Louisiana and the regiment built approaches and laid pontoon sections for Bailey's "steamboat bridge" composed of 22 steamboats anchored side-by-side, to allow Banks' Army to cross the swollen river. As Confederates attacked the Army waiting to cross, men of Company C, 97th USCT were brought up to the Yellow Bayou, but did not engage the enemy. An additional 300 formerly enslaved men enlisted into the U.S. Colored Troops as the Army fell back.
Reaching Morganza on the banks of the Mississippi River, the 97th USCT built a fort by converting the levee into breastworks and cut embrasures for artillery pieces. Hurdles were made and timber was cut to strengthen the earthworks. The location became infamous for its miserable conditions of extreme heat, excessive rain and epidemics of various diseases. The regiment left Morganza aboard the U.S. transport James Butler and returned to Carrollton, Louisiana. At Camp Parapet, Carrollton, Louisiana they engaged in infantry drill and drill in "practical operations of a siege including trenching, saps, parallels, approaches" and deploying pontoon bridges using Duane's Manual for Engineer Troops." During this time, the regiment utilized Lake Pontchartrain for pontoon drill and was rearmed with 1861 Springfield rifled muskets.
Sources:
Robertson, Henry O., The Red River Campaign and Its Toll: 69 Bloody Days in Louisiana, March-May 1864 (2016)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
Bailey's Dam, www.crt.state.la.us/cultural-development/archaeology/discover-archaeology/baileysdam
Mobile Campaign Begins
Despite a blockade on the southern coast by the U.S. Navy, Mobile, Alabama remained an open port for blockade runners bringing supplies into the Confederacy. These items included not only war supplies of weapons, munitions, and medicines, but also liquor, fabrics, clothing, and cigars. Mobile was also a strategic railroad terminus for the Mobile & Ohio and the Mobile & Great Northern railroads which connected to the Alabama & Florida Railroad at Pollard. These railroads linked Mobile with the states of Georgia, Mississippi, Tennessee, and other theaters of war. As such, the railroad access from Mobile supplied reinforcements and ordinance to the Confederate war machine. By late 1864, the Federal high command recognized the capture of Mobile as an essential element to winning the war.
Under General Grant’s orders 45,000 soldiers and warships of the U.S. Navy were allocated for an invasion of Alabama at the mouth of Mobile Bay. By early May 1864, General Edward Canby replaced Butler and reorganized the gulf coast military department as the Military Division of West Mississippi.
On August 5, 1864 Admiral Farragut’s 18 ships, with support from land forces under command of Major General Gordon Granger, passed Fort Morgan and the torpedo-mined waters in the entrance of Mobile Bay. The U.S. Navy’s engagement with four ships of the Confederate Navy and the sinking of the CSS Tennessee concluded the Battle of Mobile Bay. Seeing it a futile to put up a fight, Fort Powell, guarding the Grants Pass entrance to the bay surrendered, two days later, August 7th, Fort Gaines on Dauphine Island capitulated. After steadily advancing siege lines neared Fort Morgan, it too fell to U.S. Forces on August 23rd, sealing the city of Mobile off from the sea.
Leaving Carrollton, Louisiana August 21st on the transports J. M. Baron and N. N. Thomas, the 97th USCT arrived at Fort Gaines on Dauphine Island a few days later on the 23rd. The regiment joined about 15,000 troops which would be camped at Dauphine Island. The regiment engaged in infantry drill and fatigue duty making repairs on the fortifications for ten-hours a day, except Sundays, from September through October. On November 1st, the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry was sent to Barrancas, Florida near Pensacola where it arrived aboard the steamer Clyde. “600 men all on one deck... about 6 inches’ square to the man.” Throughout the month the men engaged in engineer duties working on Fort Barrancas raising the parapets and redoubt three feet higher and making embrasures. The officers protested against the long hours of work and the requirement of drill each day, long after dark.
Sources:
Brueske, Paul, The Last Siege: The Mobile Campaign, Alabama 1865 (2018)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
Charles O. Musser, Soldier Boy: The Civil War Letters of Charles O. Musser, 29th Iowa, ed. Barry Popchock (1995)
Under General Grant’s orders 45,000 soldiers and warships of the U.S. Navy were allocated for an invasion of Alabama at the mouth of Mobile Bay. By early May 1864, General Edward Canby replaced Butler and reorganized the gulf coast military department as the Military Division of West Mississippi.
On August 5, 1864 Admiral Farragut’s 18 ships, with support from land forces under command of Major General Gordon Granger, passed Fort Morgan and the torpedo-mined waters in the entrance of Mobile Bay. The U.S. Navy’s engagement with four ships of the Confederate Navy and the sinking of the CSS Tennessee concluded the Battle of Mobile Bay. Seeing it a futile to put up a fight, Fort Powell, guarding the Grants Pass entrance to the bay surrendered, two days later, August 7th, Fort Gaines on Dauphine Island capitulated. After steadily advancing siege lines neared Fort Morgan, it too fell to U.S. Forces on August 23rd, sealing the city of Mobile off from the sea.
Leaving Carrollton, Louisiana August 21st on the transports J. M. Baron and N. N. Thomas, the 97th USCT arrived at Fort Gaines on Dauphine Island a few days later on the 23rd. The regiment joined about 15,000 troops which would be camped at Dauphine Island. The regiment engaged in infantry drill and fatigue duty making repairs on the fortifications for ten-hours a day, except Sundays, from September through October. On November 1st, the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry was sent to Barrancas, Florida near Pensacola where it arrived aboard the steamer Clyde. “600 men all on one deck... about 6 inches’ square to the man.” Throughout the month the men engaged in engineer duties working on Fort Barrancas raising the parapets and redoubt three feet higher and making embrasures. The officers protested against the long hours of work and the requirement of drill each day, long after dark.
Sources:
Brueske, Paul, The Last Siege: The Mobile Campaign, Alabama 1865 (2018)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
Charles O. Musser, Soldier Boy: The Civil War Letters of Charles O. Musser, 29th Iowa, ed. Barry Popchock (1995)
Battle of Escambia Creek (Pine Barren)
In an effort to cut enemy supply lines, Col. George D. Robinson, 97th U.S.C.T. commanded an expedition to Pollard, Alabama, an important railway junction of the Mobile & Great Northern Railroad and the Alabama & Florida Railroad. Leaving Fort Barrancas, Florida the afternoon of Tuesday, December 13, 1864, the brigade was made up of the 97th, 82nd, and 86th U.S.C.T., 2nd Maine Cavalry, 1st Florida Cavalry (US), and Co. M of the 14th New York Cavalry and consisted of approximately 1,600 men. Marching north, the brigade encountered a small Confederate force commanded by General Scallon at the Escambia River and drove them back, arriving at Pollard on the 16th where they found a large quantity of clothing, camp and garrison equipage, quartermaster’s stores, government stores, and ordinance. Robinson’s men then burned the mostly evacuated town, the Confederate supply depot, railway station, and tore up ten miles of track on the railroad including two long trestle-bridges.
On the march back, the brigade was attacked by two Confederate commands that contested every creek crossing trying to surround and capture the raiding force. At the Little Escambia, the bridge was torn up and trees cut down in the fords. Confederate General McKeith’s force was in the front and Confederate General Scallon’s force harassed the baggage train and troops in the rear. The entire journey from Escambia Creek to Pine Barren Creek saw skirmishing as Col. Robinson led the federals back down the route which they had previously taken during the advance. At the Little Escambia he ordered the infantry to charge across what remained of the bridge, being mostly string-pieces to cross on, and led the column himself. "Gave them one round from the two howitzers and then our Regiment [97th USCT] charged across the bridge." The men moved forward “with alacrity, gallantry and such dogged determination that the enemy were forced to give way leaving the dead in the field.” Col. Robinson was wounded in two places in his right leg, one severely in the thigh which would cause a long recovery. After Col. Robinson fell wounded, Lt. Col. Spurling, 2nd Maine Cavalry, assumed command. 1st Lt. Eugene F. Boughton was killed and Lt. Burnham was wounded in the action.
From the crossing of the Little Escambia to Pine Barren Creek there was constant skirmishing. Captain Chamberlin reported, "Found a whole Brigade of the enemy in front, but they did not make a stand. Marched through the woods in line-of-battle all the A.M. skirmishing all the time. Stopped half an hour at noon to repair bridge. The enemy appeared at dusk in our rear in full force. Had a sharp fight with them. One of my men killed. Enemy repulsed. Continued the march. The enemy still harassing our rear. Reached Pine Barren creek at 11 o'clock P.M. Bridge gone. Had to ford the stream. Four of our wagons were stuck in the mud." Two of those wagons would be abandoned and burned. "Rebs came as expected. Our Regiment and 82nd all layed down on the crest of a hill..." In the dark, a charge by Confederate cavalrymen was met by a massed volleys from U.S. Colored Troops. "...on came the Rebs with the most devilish yells. Within ten rods we gave them a most terrific volley and followed them." “Fighting desperately and disputing every inch of ground” for an hour and a half. This final engagement ended the Confederate pursuit.
At 2 P.M. on December 18th, the 97th USCT halted for two hours for dinner marking 36 hours of continuous fighting while on the march. "The Rebs thought to gobble us up at night. This midnight in the pine woods was the most thrilling and beautiful scene I ever saw. The Rebs were commanded by a Brig. Gen. and he was killed in the fight. We found grey backs all through the woods where the enemy retreated [dead].
On December 19th, reveille was at 3 A.M. and the regiment continued its southward march reaching Gun-boat Point at 10 A.M. where they "had to ford an arm of the sea about 1/2 mile, but not deep. Reached camp at noon pretty well worn out."
The report from the chaplain of the 25th USCT stated that the 97th and 82nd USCTs had captured 30 prisoners and brought in about 200 colored people. The USCT soldiers were reported to have killed some Confederate prisoners because some of the enlisted men in those USCT regiments had been slaves and brought old grievances which they sought to avenge.
Union losses were 1 officer killed, 16 men killed, and 3 officers and 16 men wounded including Col. George D. Robinson, 97th USCT.
Sources:
The First Florida Cavalry (US): Union Enlistments in the Civil War at stars.library.Jeff. edu/ego
New York Times, January 15, 1865,
https://www.nytimes.com/1865/01/15/archives/from-neworleans-the-expedition- into-florida-the-plantationsfrom.html
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
Map Source: Florida Maps fcit.usf.edu/florida/maps/galleries/county/escambia/index.php
On the march back, the brigade was attacked by two Confederate commands that contested every creek crossing trying to surround and capture the raiding force. At the Little Escambia, the bridge was torn up and trees cut down in the fords. Confederate General McKeith’s force was in the front and Confederate General Scallon’s force harassed the baggage train and troops in the rear. The entire journey from Escambia Creek to Pine Barren Creek saw skirmishing as Col. Robinson led the federals back down the route which they had previously taken during the advance. At the Little Escambia he ordered the infantry to charge across what remained of the bridge, being mostly string-pieces to cross on, and led the column himself. "Gave them one round from the two howitzers and then our Regiment [97th USCT] charged across the bridge." The men moved forward “with alacrity, gallantry and such dogged determination that the enemy were forced to give way leaving the dead in the field.” Col. Robinson was wounded in two places in his right leg, one severely in the thigh which would cause a long recovery. After Col. Robinson fell wounded, Lt. Col. Spurling, 2nd Maine Cavalry, assumed command. 1st Lt. Eugene F. Boughton was killed and Lt. Burnham was wounded in the action.
From the crossing of the Little Escambia to Pine Barren Creek there was constant skirmishing. Captain Chamberlin reported, "Found a whole Brigade of the enemy in front, but they did not make a stand. Marched through the woods in line-of-battle all the A.M. skirmishing all the time. Stopped half an hour at noon to repair bridge. The enemy appeared at dusk in our rear in full force. Had a sharp fight with them. One of my men killed. Enemy repulsed. Continued the march. The enemy still harassing our rear. Reached Pine Barren creek at 11 o'clock P.M. Bridge gone. Had to ford the stream. Four of our wagons were stuck in the mud." Two of those wagons would be abandoned and burned. "Rebs came as expected. Our Regiment and 82nd all layed down on the crest of a hill..." In the dark, a charge by Confederate cavalrymen was met by a massed volleys from U.S. Colored Troops. "...on came the Rebs with the most devilish yells. Within ten rods we gave them a most terrific volley and followed them." “Fighting desperately and disputing every inch of ground” for an hour and a half. This final engagement ended the Confederate pursuit.
At 2 P.M. on December 18th, the 97th USCT halted for two hours for dinner marking 36 hours of continuous fighting while on the march. "The Rebs thought to gobble us up at night. This midnight in the pine woods was the most thrilling and beautiful scene I ever saw. The Rebs were commanded by a Brig. Gen. and he was killed in the fight. We found grey backs all through the woods where the enemy retreated [dead].
On December 19th, reveille was at 3 A.M. and the regiment continued its southward march reaching Gun-boat Point at 10 A.M. where they "had to ford an arm of the sea about 1/2 mile, but not deep. Reached camp at noon pretty well worn out."
The report from the chaplain of the 25th USCT stated that the 97th and 82nd USCTs had captured 30 prisoners and brought in about 200 colored people. The USCT soldiers were reported to have killed some Confederate prisoners because some of the enlisted men in those USCT regiments had been slaves and brought old grievances which they sought to avenge.
Union losses were 1 officer killed, 16 men killed, and 3 officers and 16 men wounded including Col. George D. Robinson, 97th USCT.
Sources:
The First Florida Cavalry (US): Union Enlistments in the Civil War at stars.library.Jeff. edu/ego
New York Times, January 15, 1865,
https://www.nytimes.com/1865/01/15/archives/from-neworleans-the-expedition- into-florida-the-plantationsfrom.html
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
Map Source: Florida Maps fcit.usf.edu/florida/maps/galleries/county/escambia/index.php
Starke's Landing, the Siege of Spanish Fort, and Fort Blakeley
On January 1st, 1865, Captain John N. Chamberlain he wrote in his diary, "Great meeting of the colored troops, and the colored population generally as a celebration of the anniversary of the Emancipation Proclamation. The Chaplain of the 2nd Maine Cavalry and a Chaplain from the Navy made some very appropriate and able remarks. Also Col. Woodman of the 2nd Maine Vet. Cavalry Commandant of the Post [Fort Barrancas]."
The year had opened with the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry at work on fortifications at Barrancas, only a mile away from the Navy Yard at Fort Pickens. The works were inspected by the Department of the Gulf's Chief Engineer, Captain Palfrey, U.S. Engineers. A women's camp was established outside the regiments main camp and the married men of the regiment built gardens for them. The women and children, now separated from the men, had escaped enslavement as their husbands had done and had been integrated within the regiment as seamstresses, cooks, and laundresses. They had become a distraction to the soldiers and the separate women's camp was designed to eliminate the problems inherent to the situation.
In February, orders were received from General Granger to assemble a 200 foot pontoon bridge at Fort Morgan. Arriving aboard the steamer Alabama, the men spent several days laying the bridge, taking it up, and laying it again utilizing the opportunity for pontoon drill at Pilot Town. Extra shoes were received for the upcoming troop movement. Captain John J. Smith of the 97th USCT was given command of a new company of men recruited specifically to do bridgework as the 1st Pontoniers with men recruited from white regiments. By early March, Capt. Smith had arrived back to Barrancas with the men and pontoon train of the new company.
On March 18th, Smith's company configured the pontoon bridge material into four rafts and they were towed twenty-five miles up to the Fish River. Additional troops boarded transports and also moved forward. Rough weather caused the steamer Jenny Rodgers to be driven ashore with two of the 97th USCTs companies aboard.
The nearly 45,000 men who were at staging camps at Dauphine Island, Mobile Point, and Fort Barrancas were now on the move. Each man carried “one change of underclothing; namely, one shirt, one pair of drawers, one pair socks, and one woolen blanket, one rubber blanket, and extra pair shoes, and one half of a shelter tent.”
At Navy Cove, men of the 97th USCT boarded the steamer J. M. Brown and traveled 40 miles up the bay to Starke's Landing. The Engineer Brigade, under the command of Brig. Gen. Joseph Bailey, was assigned to the Headquarters Troops and consisted of the 96th U.S. Colored Infantry (Col. John C. Cobb), the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry (Lt. Col. George A. Harmount, Col. George D. Robinson recovering from wounds received at Pine Barren) and the 1st Pontoniers (Capt. John J. Smith, formerly of the 97th USCT). Orders issued March 7th had several officers of the 97th USCT leaving their companies to be embedded in the advancing Divisions of the XVI and XIII Corps: 1st Lieut. Hopeman, 2nd Division, XVI Corps as Chief Engineer; Captain Arnot Cannon, 3rd Division, XIII Corps, as Assistant Engineer; Captain Van Lien and Captain Morton assigned to the XIII Corps as Assistant Engineers; and Captains John Chamberin and James G. Hill, embedded with the XVI Corps Headquarters. The infantrymen, now marching to Spanish Fort and Fort Blakely, carried “one ax, and one shovel or spade” per dozen men. A Pioneer Corps corduroyed roads and the 1st Pontoniers laid bridges. Every night “the troops bivouacked for the night and fortified.”
At Navy Cove, men of the 97th USCT boarded the steamer J. M. Brown and traveled 40 miles up the bay to Starke's Landing. The heavy rainfall coupled with the massive Union troop movement on the road to Spanish Fort utterly destroyed the route which put the Federal supply line in jeopardy. With rations running low, and nearing the Confederate works, Canby ordered the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry, superintended by Brig. Gen Joseph Bailey, to construct a wharf 3.5 miles south of Spanish Fort. Despite the lack of company officers, temporarily assigned to divisions as engineer officers, pontoon landings were quickly deployed and within 24 hours the enlisted men completed the wharfs. Starke’s Landing, as it would be known, became a depot consisting of six wharfs 300 to 500 feet long. The landing dramatically expedited the transportation of rations, reinforcements, artillery, and supplies for the siege from Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan.
The landing was also a critical hub for the transportation of serious casualties from the field hospitals to be shipped by water quickly to larger medical facilities such as New Orleans. “The proportion of amputations to the number of wounded at Spanish Fort was large, as the majority of wounds during the first days of the siege were from explosion of shell.” Reported Surgeon Charles B. White, XIII Army Corps. “The wounded were moved from the division hospital to transports for transfer to New Orleans within two to four days after the injuries were received. They were accompanied by medical officers, cooks, and nurses, and furnished with medical and hospital supplies and rations, under orders from from Surgeon Abadie, Medical Director."
The same day Starke’s landing was completed, March 27, 1865, the investment of Spanish Fort began. During the next several days men continually worked on breastworks and approaches both day and night under the supervision of the engineer officers. All the while, artillery thundered in a hellish volume. Over the next several days several sorties from the Confederates were repulsed but kept the Union troops on edge during the siege. Each night, the Federals continued to dig approaches and saps with parallels getting ever closer to the Confederate works. Artillery barrages thundered day after day, and on April 8, the evening opened up with a tremendous cannonading. Captain Chamberlin of the 97th USCT wrote, "...detached from my regt. and am at the Hd. Qrs. of Maj. Gen. A.J. Smith. Was ordered to report to his chief Engr. for duty and have been building Batteries for the past week." He continued, "Our Army is within 200 yds of their line already. We had 70 pieces of Artillery in position yesterday, and at 5 O'clock P.M. opened fire and continued until dark." The next day, seeing a vulnerability in the northern end of the Confederate line, General Eugene Carr, 3rd Division of the XVI Corps, sent the 8th Iowa Regiment Advancing through a swamp filled with deep water and mud. The brutal fighting for control of the fort ended by the evening of April 9 as those who were not killed or surrendered, escaped over a plank road in the rear of the fortification. In the dark, near midnight, soldiers of the XVI and XIII Corps met inside Spanish Fort. The fort was now in Union hands.
Federal Forces, having captured Spanish Fort, then moved north and advanced to Fort Blakely joining their counterparts already besieging the Confederate defenses. From April 2nd to the 8th the Union soldiers had been working on breastworks. On April 9th, the same day the Spanish Fort fell, and Gen. Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, General Steele issued orders to attack Fort Blakeley. With bayonets, the Federals crossed three quarters of a mile over flat, cleared land, through a double line of abattis, buried torpedoes (land mines) attached to a string of wires, chevaux de fries, through the ditches, over the escarpment, and into the enemy works under heavy fire. The assault, lasting less than 30 minutes, saw the 2nd Divisions of both the XIII and XVI Corps and a division of U.S.C.T. regiments, which included the 73rd USCT (formerly the 1st Louisiana Native Guard), carry the day. “The colored troops behaved with marked gallantry in the assault although repulsed in their first assault they rallied under a heavy fire and charged the second time and with complete success.” Stated an officer of the 20th Iowa Infantry. As the sun set, the American flag flew over Fort Blakeley. Officers of the 97th USCT were cited for "rare efficiency and gallant bearing under fire" and "zealous and energetic in their arduous duties, and deserve credit for overcoming the difficulties of their position." On April 10th, the Headquarters of the XVI Corps, moved up to Blakeley. Two days later Fort Huger was evacuated and Battery Tracy blown up. By the 12th, news of Lee's surrender to Grant had arrived as General Granger occupied the city of Mobile.
Both during and after the battles of Spanish Fort and Fort Blakeley, the Confederates had used land mines known at the time as sub-terra shells. They had been planted in the ruts of roads leading to the two forts, paths leading to water, and at the fortifications in front of the abatis and other obstructions. Quite a large number of U.S. soldiers were killed by the land mines and others left with horrific wounds. Even after Fort Blakely fell at least fifty exploded. Gen. Steele ordered the Confederate prisoners to dig up the land mines “under penalty of being marched back and forth until all mines had been exploded.
Meanwhile, the enlisted men of the 97th USCT remained at Starke’s Wharf under Brig. Gen Joseph Bailey who was overseeing operations there. Transports and steamers were waiting at the wharfs to take the federals to the west side of the bay. Gen. Canby ordered the 1st and 3rd Divisions of the XII Corps under General Granger to march from Fort Blakeley 8 miles south to Starke’s Wharf where they boarded the waiting steamers and transports late into the evening of April 12th.
On April 14th, the men of the 97th US Colored Infantry left Starke's Landing and marched six miles to Spanish Fort. Several companies continued to Fort Blakeley on the transport steamer Iberville. The men constructed fortifications at Blakeley before marching back to Spanish Fort by the end of the month. Two companies of the 97th USCT remained at Blakeley and Captain Chamberlain oversaw the construction of "a small fort [redoubt] to garrison 300 men with 6 guns. I have a detail of 150 men daily from the 20th Wisconsin and the 28th Iowa Regt."
Sources:
Brueske, Paul, The Last Siege: The Mobile Campaign, Alabama 1865 (2018)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
United States War Department, The War of Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (OR), Vol 49 (1879)
Jordan III, Daniel W., Operational Art and the Campaigns for Mobile, 1864-65: A Staff Ride Handbook (
The year had opened with the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry at work on fortifications at Barrancas, only a mile away from the Navy Yard at Fort Pickens. The works were inspected by the Department of the Gulf's Chief Engineer, Captain Palfrey, U.S. Engineers. A women's camp was established outside the regiments main camp and the married men of the regiment built gardens for them. The women and children, now separated from the men, had escaped enslavement as their husbands had done and had been integrated within the regiment as seamstresses, cooks, and laundresses. They had become a distraction to the soldiers and the separate women's camp was designed to eliminate the problems inherent to the situation.
In February, orders were received from General Granger to assemble a 200 foot pontoon bridge at Fort Morgan. Arriving aboard the steamer Alabama, the men spent several days laying the bridge, taking it up, and laying it again utilizing the opportunity for pontoon drill at Pilot Town. Extra shoes were received for the upcoming troop movement. Captain John J. Smith of the 97th USCT was given command of a new company of men recruited specifically to do bridgework as the 1st Pontoniers with men recruited from white regiments. By early March, Capt. Smith had arrived back to Barrancas with the men and pontoon train of the new company.
On March 18th, Smith's company configured the pontoon bridge material into four rafts and they were towed twenty-five miles up to the Fish River. Additional troops boarded transports and also moved forward. Rough weather caused the steamer Jenny Rodgers to be driven ashore with two of the 97th USCTs companies aboard.
The nearly 45,000 men who were at staging camps at Dauphine Island, Mobile Point, and Fort Barrancas were now on the move. Each man carried “one change of underclothing; namely, one shirt, one pair of drawers, one pair socks, and one woolen blanket, one rubber blanket, and extra pair shoes, and one half of a shelter tent.”
At Navy Cove, men of the 97th USCT boarded the steamer J. M. Brown and traveled 40 miles up the bay to Starke's Landing. The Engineer Brigade, under the command of Brig. Gen. Joseph Bailey, was assigned to the Headquarters Troops and consisted of the 96th U.S. Colored Infantry (Col. John C. Cobb), the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry (Lt. Col. George A. Harmount, Col. George D. Robinson recovering from wounds received at Pine Barren) and the 1st Pontoniers (Capt. John J. Smith, formerly of the 97th USCT). Orders issued March 7th had several officers of the 97th USCT leaving their companies to be embedded in the advancing Divisions of the XVI and XIII Corps: 1st Lieut. Hopeman, 2nd Division, XVI Corps as Chief Engineer; Captain Arnot Cannon, 3rd Division, XIII Corps, as Assistant Engineer; Captain Van Lien and Captain Morton assigned to the XIII Corps as Assistant Engineers; and Captains John Chamberin and James G. Hill, embedded with the XVI Corps Headquarters. The infantrymen, now marching to Spanish Fort and Fort Blakely, carried “one ax, and one shovel or spade” per dozen men. A Pioneer Corps corduroyed roads and the 1st Pontoniers laid bridges. Every night “the troops bivouacked for the night and fortified.”
At Navy Cove, men of the 97th USCT boarded the steamer J. M. Brown and traveled 40 miles up the bay to Starke's Landing. The heavy rainfall coupled with the massive Union troop movement on the road to Spanish Fort utterly destroyed the route which put the Federal supply line in jeopardy. With rations running low, and nearing the Confederate works, Canby ordered the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry, superintended by Brig. Gen Joseph Bailey, to construct a wharf 3.5 miles south of Spanish Fort. Despite the lack of company officers, temporarily assigned to divisions as engineer officers, pontoon landings were quickly deployed and within 24 hours the enlisted men completed the wharfs. Starke’s Landing, as it would be known, became a depot consisting of six wharfs 300 to 500 feet long. The landing dramatically expedited the transportation of rations, reinforcements, artillery, and supplies for the siege from Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan.
The landing was also a critical hub for the transportation of serious casualties from the field hospitals to be shipped by water quickly to larger medical facilities such as New Orleans. “The proportion of amputations to the number of wounded at Spanish Fort was large, as the majority of wounds during the first days of the siege were from explosion of shell.” Reported Surgeon Charles B. White, XIII Army Corps. “The wounded were moved from the division hospital to transports for transfer to New Orleans within two to four days after the injuries were received. They were accompanied by medical officers, cooks, and nurses, and furnished with medical and hospital supplies and rations, under orders from from Surgeon Abadie, Medical Director."
The same day Starke’s landing was completed, March 27, 1865, the investment of Spanish Fort began. During the next several days men continually worked on breastworks and approaches both day and night under the supervision of the engineer officers. All the while, artillery thundered in a hellish volume. Over the next several days several sorties from the Confederates were repulsed but kept the Union troops on edge during the siege. Each night, the Federals continued to dig approaches and saps with parallels getting ever closer to the Confederate works. Artillery barrages thundered day after day, and on April 8, the evening opened up with a tremendous cannonading. Captain Chamberlin of the 97th USCT wrote, "...detached from my regt. and am at the Hd. Qrs. of Maj. Gen. A.J. Smith. Was ordered to report to his chief Engr. for duty and have been building Batteries for the past week." He continued, "Our Army is within 200 yds of their line already. We had 70 pieces of Artillery in position yesterday, and at 5 O'clock P.M. opened fire and continued until dark." The next day, seeing a vulnerability in the northern end of the Confederate line, General Eugene Carr, 3rd Division of the XVI Corps, sent the 8th Iowa Regiment Advancing through a swamp filled with deep water and mud. The brutal fighting for control of the fort ended by the evening of April 9 as those who were not killed or surrendered, escaped over a plank road in the rear of the fortification. In the dark, near midnight, soldiers of the XVI and XIII Corps met inside Spanish Fort. The fort was now in Union hands.
Federal Forces, having captured Spanish Fort, then moved north and advanced to Fort Blakely joining their counterparts already besieging the Confederate defenses. From April 2nd to the 8th the Union soldiers had been working on breastworks. On April 9th, the same day the Spanish Fort fell, and Gen. Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, General Steele issued orders to attack Fort Blakeley. With bayonets, the Federals crossed three quarters of a mile over flat, cleared land, through a double line of abattis, buried torpedoes (land mines) attached to a string of wires, chevaux de fries, through the ditches, over the escarpment, and into the enemy works under heavy fire. The assault, lasting less than 30 minutes, saw the 2nd Divisions of both the XIII and XVI Corps and a division of U.S.C.T. regiments, which included the 73rd USCT (formerly the 1st Louisiana Native Guard), carry the day. “The colored troops behaved with marked gallantry in the assault although repulsed in their first assault they rallied under a heavy fire and charged the second time and with complete success.” Stated an officer of the 20th Iowa Infantry. As the sun set, the American flag flew over Fort Blakeley. Officers of the 97th USCT were cited for "rare efficiency and gallant bearing under fire" and "zealous and energetic in their arduous duties, and deserve credit for overcoming the difficulties of their position." On April 10th, the Headquarters of the XVI Corps, moved up to Blakeley. Two days later Fort Huger was evacuated and Battery Tracy blown up. By the 12th, news of Lee's surrender to Grant had arrived as General Granger occupied the city of Mobile.
Both during and after the battles of Spanish Fort and Fort Blakeley, the Confederates had used land mines known at the time as sub-terra shells. They had been planted in the ruts of roads leading to the two forts, paths leading to water, and at the fortifications in front of the abatis and other obstructions. Quite a large number of U.S. soldiers were killed by the land mines and others left with horrific wounds. Even after Fort Blakely fell at least fifty exploded. Gen. Steele ordered the Confederate prisoners to dig up the land mines “under penalty of being marched back and forth until all mines had been exploded.
Meanwhile, the enlisted men of the 97th USCT remained at Starke’s Wharf under Brig. Gen Joseph Bailey who was overseeing operations there. Transports and steamers were waiting at the wharfs to take the federals to the west side of the bay. Gen. Canby ordered the 1st and 3rd Divisions of the XII Corps under General Granger to march from Fort Blakeley 8 miles south to Starke’s Wharf where they boarded the waiting steamers and transports late into the evening of April 12th.
On April 14th, the men of the 97th US Colored Infantry left Starke's Landing and marched six miles to Spanish Fort. Several companies continued to Fort Blakeley on the transport steamer Iberville. The men constructed fortifications at Blakeley before marching back to Spanish Fort by the end of the month. Two companies of the 97th USCT remained at Blakeley and Captain Chamberlain oversaw the construction of "a small fort [redoubt] to garrison 300 men with 6 guns. I have a detail of 150 men daily from the 20th Wisconsin and the 28th Iowa Regt."
Sources:
Brueske, Paul, The Last Siege: The Mobile Campaign, Alabama 1865 (2018)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
United States War Department, The War of Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (OR), Vol 49 (1879)
Jordan III, Daniel W., Operational Art and the Campaigns for Mobile, 1864-65: A Staff Ride Handbook (
Occupation of Mobile, Police Duties, and the Freedmen's Bureau
After riots in the city on April 12th, several orders were issued restricting civilian behavior by the newly appointed federal provost martial, Brig. Gen George L. Andrews. General Granger issued warnings to the federal soldiers now occupying the city not disturb people or property, prohibited pillaging, straggling, unauthorized foraging, and marauding. Enlisted men were forbidden to enter private homes unless ordered to do so. Provost guards were authorized to arrest violators. Canby established his headquarters at the Customs House in downtown Mobile.
Through the end of April, 1865, the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry worked on turning the enemy works to fortify the entrance of the Alabama River. The regiment camped at Blakeley while working on the fortifications at both Blakeley and Spanish Fort. On May 2nd, the regiment arrived in Mobile via steamer from Spanish Fort. Company G remained on the eastern shore until Battery Tracy was dismantled. Throughout the months of May and June, 1865, the men of the regiment were engaged in building and repairing the fortifications at Mobile, Alabama. Company G arrived aboard the steamer Crawford on May 29th. The regiment's new camp was located just outside the city.
On the afternoon of May 25, 1865, 200,000 pounds of gunpowder exploded at the Federal army’s primary ordinance depot near the Mobile River in the warehouse district just north of downtown Mobile. The explosion was the largest ever seen up to that point in time and was felt and seen as far away as Fort Gaines on Dauphine Island, 28 miles away. The explosions continued. Steamers at wharf were blown apart. Giant clouds of dark smoke billowed into the air. Half of the city of Mobile was destroyed.
The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, also known as the Freedmen’s Bureau, was established in the War Department by an act of Congress on March 3, 1865. The Bureau was responsible for the supervision and management of all matters relating to the refugees and freedmen and lands abandoned or seized during the Civil War. The conditions and injustices faced by African Americans in the American south were detailed in The Freedmen of Louisiana. Final Report of the Bureau of Free Labor, Department of the Gulf, To Major General E. R. S. Canby, Commanding, by Thomas W. Conway, General Superintendent of Freedmen.
In May 1865, Maj. Gen. Oliver Otis Howard was appointed as Commissioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau. Howard’s headquarters were in Washington, DC, but assistant commissioners, sub-assistant commissioners, and agents conducted the Bureau’s daily operations in the former Confederate states. At least two officers of the 97th U.S.C.T. worked for the Freedmen’s Bureau in Mobile; Lt. Col. George Harmount served as Subassistant Commissioner from April to August, 1865 and Col. Geo D. Robinson, who had finally recovered from his wounds at Pine Barren Creek, served as Subassistant Commissioner from October 1865 to April 1866 when the 97th USCT mustered out. Harmount would also serve as the subassistant commissioner in Montgomery, Alabama from October 1865 to December 1866.
The offices of the Freedmen's Bureau issued rations to both, issued clothing, operated hospitals and refugee camps, supervised labor contracts between planters and freed people, managed apprenticeship disputes and complaints, established schools for African-Americans, legalizing marriages entered into during slavery, provided transportation to refugees and freed people who were attempting to reunite with their family or relocate to other parts of the country, and assisting USCT soldiers in obtaining back pay, bounty payments, and pensions. Commenting on the need for schools to be opened, Capt. Chamberlin wrote that “the brutish ignorance of white and black is beyond all belief.” Many schools were opened up across Alabama by the Freedmen's Bureau.
On the fourth of July, 1865 their was a large and "joyfully celebrated Independence Day" in Mobile. It was the first time that the holiday had applied to the formerly enslaved population. Captain Chamberlin wrote “The different trades were represented carrying flags and the different implements of their industry. The Masonic and religious societies were also part of the procession, which was comprised on the whole of something like 5000 people. Nearly all were very neatly dressed and looked well.” The 96th and 97th USCT both acted as escorts, front and rear, as the parade marched to the public square. There, a man of color read the Declaration of Independence. Several additional dignitaries made speeches, including early civil rights leader Captain James H. Ingraham, formerly of the 73rd USCT (Louisiana Native Guard). “They seemed as Joyous for this great day of Jubilee as the same number of white children in the North, and in a much more expressive manner.
Some USCT officers, like Capt. Chamberlin, were temporarily placed on detached service outside of Mobile as provost marshals to administer the loyalty oath in areas within greater Alabama. Captain Chamberlin noted that “Out of 1200 voters who lived in Conecuh County, nearly one half perished in the [Confederate] Army. There were more widders and marriageable girls in proportion to men than I ever saw in a county before.” He noted that the people were generally eager to take the Oath.
By September the regiment had completed its fortification work in Mobile and it was assigned to guard duty at the Quartermaster’s Pay, Commissary and Ordinance Departments. On October 6, 1865, a large fire in Mobile destroyed over a million dollars’ worth of cotton. Several businesses in Mobile suffered as a result and left thousands destitute who were then added to the drawings of rations supplied by the U.S. War Department through the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands (Freedmen’s Bureau).
Unrest continued to rise between blacks and whites as both impoverished groups competed for jobs dropping wages. Black churches were burned as they had become gathering places for the promotion of egalitarianism. The black soldiers who had been recruited locally became an ever increasing destabilizing element.
As each week passed in 1866, another regiment was being mustered out of service. These units had been the occupying force in the city maintaining order. The reduction in U.S. forces in the city resulted in an increase in violence and unfair treatment of the blacks in the community. Several Alabama residents who had served in the Union army were notified to leave the city. Bitterness and hatred towards the blacks and “anything northern” intensified. Restrictive Black Codes were being passed restricting more and more rights of the colored population. By contrast, many officers of the USCT regiments held other perceptions. Captain Chamberlain wrote, “The viper –slavery is dead- but we must see that every State that has been in rebellion against us, secures to every one of her citizens equal rights. Then, and not till then, we can truly say that ‘all is peace.’”
A plea from the "Colored People of Mobile" to the Freedmen's Bureau dated August 2, 1865 which would have landed on the desk of Lt. Col. George Harmount of the 97th USCT. "...our people are cruelly maltreated in the interior of this state of Alabama, that the planters will not yet let our people go but cruelly scourges them and shoots them if they remonstrate or plead for their freedom, that numerous tales of untold horror have reached us in Mobile which eye witnesses can prove, tales of terrible and heart rending atrocities which are related not to a civilized and Christian community but to the beasts of the forest, to the rocks & trees and stone, that at the recital of such wrongs those mute and inanimate things would be thrown into confusion"
Another example of the obstacles prohibiting the participation of colored people in society in the post war South is a letter Robinson sent while he was the Superintendent of the District of Mobile in early 1866.
"Mobile Ala Jany 22″ 1866Colonel: I learn from Mayor Withers that he is to go to day to Montgomery to have an interview with the General in reference to matters connected with the Bureau in this Dist
I would respectfully call the attention of the General to an ordinance recently passed by the Common Council of this city which requires all persons owning Hacks. cabs or drays to give a bond in the Sum of five hundred dollars before they can obtain a license to run the same1
This ordinance is a very oppressive one upon the Freedmen–many of whom are unable to give the Bond as it is required that the bondsman shall be a property owner and a resident of the city. In some cases the bondsman requires that he shall have an interest in the carriage or dray thus reducing the profits of the real owner
I cannot determine whether I have a right to interfere in this matter or not. But it seems to me that in accordance with the provisions of Gen Orders No 3 Dated war Dept. Adjt Genls Office Washington Jany 12″ 1866, the General might do so or give me orders to that Effect.2 This ordinance is equally oppressive to discharged officers of our army some of whom wish to run Hacks but Cannot get resident property owners to become their sureties. Please send me instructions in regard to this. I have exhausted every argument to have this law repealed but without Success I have the honor to be Colonel Your Obdt Servant
Geo D Robinson"
By the time the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry mustered out of service on April 1, 1866, it had become the “oldest colored Regiment in the service.”
When they were mustered out in April 1866 the conservative element left in the city resorted to more intimidation and violence to turn back the liberal progress for which the men in the regiment had fought for. Reports showed after the regiment left : Freedmen killed by whites = 70; Freedmen shot at, whipped and beaten by whites = 210; Freedmen killed in riots = 20; Freedmen wounded in riots = 20; Whites killed by Freedmen = 1.
Black Codes were passed throughout the southern states which restricted those of African ancestry, or those who promoted racial or legal equality. Individual counties adopted laws returning free men and women into a social and economic structure resembling enslavement. St Landry Parish in Louisiana, for example prefaced their restrictive laws with the following statement. ""AN ORDINANCE relative to the police of negroes recently emancipated within the parish of St. Landry.
Whereas it was formerly made the duty of the police jury to make suitable regulations for the police of slaves within the limits of the parish; and whereas slaves have become emancipated by the action of the ruling powers; and whereas it is necessary for public order, as well as for the comfort and correct deportment of said freedmen, that suitable regulations should be established for their government in their changed condition..." The restrictions included prohibiting owning or renting a house in the parish. "SECTION 3. Be it further ordained, That no negro shall be permitted to rent or keep a house within said parish. Any negro violating this provision shall be immediately ejected and compelled to find an employer; and any person who shall rent, or give the use of any house to any negro, in violation of this section, shall pay a fine of five dollars for each offence."
Non-whites were prohibited from gathering in groups after dark and "no negro shall be permitted to preach, exhort, or otherwise declaim to congregations of colored people, without a special permission in writing from the president of the police jury. Any negro violating the provisions of this section shall pay a fine of ten dollars, or in default thereof shall be forced to work ten days on the public road, or suffer corporeal punishment as hereinafter provided." Nor could they own a firearm, "That no negro who is not in the military service shall be allowed to carry fire-arms, or any kind of weapons, within the parish, without the special written permission of his employers, approved and indorsed by the nearest or most convenient chief of patrol. Any one violating the provisions of this section shall forfeit his weapons and pay a fine of five dollars, or in default of the payment of said fine, shall be forced to work five days on the public road, or suffer corporeal punishment as hereinafter provided." These :patrols" that enforced these laws were typically former Confederate soldiers.
Further, it was unlikely that any formerly enslaved person could go into business for himself as "no negro shall sell, barter, or exchange any articles of merchandise or traffic within said parish without the special written permission of his employer, specifying the articles of sale, barter or traffic. Any one thus offending shall pay a fine of one dollar for each offence, and suffer the forfeiture of said articles, or in default of the payment of said fine shall work one day on the public road, or suffer corporeal punishment as hereinafter provided."
Corporal punishment was described as "the corporeal punishment provided for in the foregoing sections shall consist in confining the body of the offender within a barrel placed over his or her shoulders, in the manner practiced in the army, such confinement not to continue longer than twelve hours, and for such time within the aforesaid limit as shall be fixed by the captain or chief of patrol who inflicts the penalty."
The Mississippi Black Codes of 1865 included the following laws.
"Section 1.No freedman, free Negro, or mulatto [shall] rent or lease any lands or tenements, except in incorporated towns or cities, in which places the corporate authorities shall control the same.
Sec 3. It shall not be lawful for any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto to intermarry with any white person; and those shall be deemed freedmen, free Negroes, and mulattoes who are of pure Negro blood; and those descended from a Negro to the third generation inclusive, though one ancestor of each generation may have been a white person.
Sec 6. All contracts for labor made with freedmen, free Negroes, and mulattoes for a longer period than one month shall be in writing and in duplicate, ...and if the laborer shall quit the service of the employer before expiration of his term of service without good cause, he shall forfeit his wages for that year, up to the time of quitting.
Sec 7. Every civil officer shall, and every person may, arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his or her employer before the expiration of his or her term of service...
Section 1. All freedmen, free Negroes, and mulattoes under the age of eighteen within their respective counties, beats, or districts who are orphans, or whose parent or parents have not the means, or who refuse to provide for and support said minors; and thereupon it shall be the duty of said Probate Court to order the clerk of said court to apprentice said minors to some competent and suitable person, on such terms as the court may direct,
Sec 3. In the management and control of said apprentices, said master or mistress shall have power to inflict such moderate corporeal chastisement as a father or guardian is allowed to inflict on his or her child or ward at common law: Provided that in no case shall cruel or inhuman punishment be inflicted.
Sec 5. If any person entice away any apprentice from his or her master or mistress, or shall knowingly employ an apprentice, or furnish him or her food or clothing, without the written consent of his or her master or mistress, or shall sell or give said apprentice ardent spirits, without such consent, said person so offending shall be deemed guilty of a high misdemeanor, and shall, on conviction thereof before the county court, be punished as provided for the punishment of persons enticing from their employer hired freedmen, free Negroes, or mulattoes.
Section 1. All rogues and vagabonds, idle and dissipated persons, beggars, jugglers, or persons practicing unlawful games or plays, runaways, common drunkards, common nightwalkers, pilferers, lewd, wanton, or lascivious persons, in speech or behavior, common railers and brawlers, persons who neglect their calling or employment, misspend what they earn, or do not provide for the support of themselves or their families or dependents, and all other idle and disorderly persons, including all who neglect all lawful business, or habitually misspend their time by frequenting houses of ill-fame, gaming houses, or tippling shops, shall be deemed and considered vagrants under the provisions of this act; and, on conviction thereof shall be fined not exceeding $100 . . . and be imprisoned at the discretion of the court not exceeding ten days.
Sec 2. All freedmen, free Negroes, and mulattoes in this state over the age of eighteen years found . . . with no lawful employment or business, or found unlawfully assembling themselves together . . . and all white persons so assembling with freedmen, free Negroes, or mulattoes, or usually associating with freedmen, free Negroes, or mulattoes on terms of equality, or living in adultery or fornication with a freedwoman, free Negro, or mulatto, shall be deemed vagrants; and, on conviction thereof, shall be fined in the sum of not exceeding, in the case of a freedman, free Negro, or mulatto, fifty dollars, and a white man, two hundred dollars, and imprisoned at the discretion of the court, the free Negro not exceeding ten days, and the white man not exceeding six months.
Section 1. No freedman, free Negro, or mulatto not in the military service of the United States government, and not licensed so to do by the board of police of his or her county, shall keep or carry firearms of any kind, or any ammunition, dirk, or Bowie knife.
Sec 2. Any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto committing riots, routs, affrays, trespasses, malicious mischief, cruel treatment to animals, seditious speeches, insulting gestures, language, or acts, or assaults on any person, disturbance of the peace, exercising the function of a minister of the Gospel, without a license from some regularly organized church, vending spirituous or intoxicating liquors, or committing any other misdemeanor the punishment of which is not specifically provided for by law shall, upon conviction thereof in the county court, be fined not less than ten dollars and not more than one hundred dollars, and may be imprisoned, at the discretion of the court, not exceeding thirty days.
Sec 5. Any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto convicted of any of the misdemeanors provided against in this act shall fail or refuse, for the space of five days after conviction, to pay the fine and costs imposed, such person shall be hired out by the sheriff or other officer . . . to any white person who will pay said fine and all costs and take such convict for the shortest time."
Sources:
Brueske, Paul, The Last Siege: The Mobile Campaign, Alabama 1865 (2018)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
Freedmen's Bureau Records, National Archives
Freedmen's Bureau Transcription Project, transcription.si.edu
Fitzgerald, Michael W., Urban Emancipation: Popular Politics in Reconstruction Mobile, 1860-1890, (2002)
https://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/gna/Quellensammlung/05/05_blackcode_1865.htm
Through the end of April, 1865, the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry worked on turning the enemy works to fortify the entrance of the Alabama River. The regiment camped at Blakeley while working on the fortifications at both Blakeley and Spanish Fort. On May 2nd, the regiment arrived in Mobile via steamer from Spanish Fort. Company G remained on the eastern shore until Battery Tracy was dismantled. Throughout the months of May and June, 1865, the men of the regiment were engaged in building and repairing the fortifications at Mobile, Alabama. Company G arrived aboard the steamer Crawford on May 29th. The regiment's new camp was located just outside the city.
On the afternoon of May 25, 1865, 200,000 pounds of gunpowder exploded at the Federal army’s primary ordinance depot near the Mobile River in the warehouse district just north of downtown Mobile. The explosion was the largest ever seen up to that point in time and was felt and seen as far away as Fort Gaines on Dauphine Island, 28 miles away. The explosions continued. Steamers at wharf were blown apart. Giant clouds of dark smoke billowed into the air. Half of the city of Mobile was destroyed.
The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, also known as the Freedmen’s Bureau, was established in the War Department by an act of Congress on March 3, 1865. The Bureau was responsible for the supervision and management of all matters relating to the refugees and freedmen and lands abandoned or seized during the Civil War. The conditions and injustices faced by African Americans in the American south were detailed in The Freedmen of Louisiana. Final Report of the Bureau of Free Labor, Department of the Gulf, To Major General E. R. S. Canby, Commanding, by Thomas W. Conway, General Superintendent of Freedmen.
In May 1865, Maj. Gen. Oliver Otis Howard was appointed as Commissioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau. Howard’s headquarters were in Washington, DC, but assistant commissioners, sub-assistant commissioners, and agents conducted the Bureau’s daily operations in the former Confederate states. At least two officers of the 97th U.S.C.T. worked for the Freedmen’s Bureau in Mobile; Lt. Col. George Harmount served as Subassistant Commissioner from April to August, 1865 and Col. Geo D. Robinson, who had finally recovered from his wounds at Pine Barren Creek, served as Subassistant Commissioner from October 1865 to April 1866 when the 97th USCT mustered out. Harmount would also serve as the subassistant commissioner in Montgomery, Alabama from October 1865 to December 1866.
The offices of the Freedmen's Bureau issued rations to both, issued clothing, operated hospitals and refugee camps, supervised labor contracts between planters and freed people, managed apprenticeship disputes and complaints, established schools for African-Americans, legalizing marriages entered into during slavery, provided transportation to refugees and freed people who were attempting to reunite with their family or relocate to other parts of the country, and assisting USCT soldiers in obtaining back pay, bounty payments, and pensions. Commenting on the need for schools to be opened, Capt. Chamberlin wrote that “the brutish ignorance of white and black is beyond all belief.” Many schools were opened up across Alabama by the Freedmen's Bureau.
On the fourth of July, 1865 their was a large and "joyfully celebrated Independence Day" in Mobile. It was the first time that the holiday had applied to the formerly enslaved population. Captain Chamberlin wrote “The different trades were represented carrying flags and the different implements of their industry. The Masonic and religious societies were also part of the procession, which was comprised on the whole of something like 5000 people. Nearly all were very neatly dressed and looked well.” The 96th and 97th USCT both acted as escorts, front and rear, as the parade marched to the public square. There, a man of color read the Declaration of Independence. Several additional dignitaries made speeches, including early civil rights leader Captain James H. Ingraham, formerly of the 73rd USCT (Louisiana Native Guard). “They seemed as Joyous for this great day of Jubilee as the same number of white children in the North, and in a much more expressive manner.
Some USCT officers, like Capt. Chamberlin, were temporarily placed on detached service outside of Mobile as provost marshals to administer the loyalty oath in areas within greater Alabama. Captain Chamberlin noted that “Out of 1200 voters who lived in Conecuh County, nearly one half perished in the [Confederate] Army. There were more widders and marriageable girls in proportion to men than I ever saw in a county before.” He noted that the people were generally eager to take the Oath.
By September the regiment had completed its fortification work in Mobile and it was assigned to guard duty at the Quartermaster’s Pay, Commissary and Ordinance Departments. On October 6, 1865, a large fire in Mobile destroyed over a million dollars’ worth of cotton. Several businesses in Mobile suffered as a result and left thousands destitute who were then added to the drawings of rations supplied by the U.S. War Department through the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands (Freedmen’s Bureau).
Unrest continued to rise between blacks and whites as both impoverished groups competed for jobs dropping wages. Black churches were burned as they had become gathering places for the promotion of egalitarianism. The black soldiers who had been recruited locally became an ever increasing destabilizing element.
As each week passed in 1866, another regiment was being mustered out of service. These units had been the occupying force in the city maintaining order. The reduction in U.S. forces in the city resulted in an increase in violence and unfair treatment of the blacks in the community. Several Alabama residents who had served in the Union army were notified to leave the city. Bitterness and hatred towards the blacks and “anything northern” intensified. Restrictive Black Codes were being passed restricting more and more rights of the colored population. By contrast, many officers of the USCT regiments held other perceptions. Captain Chamberlain wrote, “The viper –slavery is dead- but we must see that every State that has been in rebellion against us, secures to every one of her citizens equal rights. Then, and not till then, we can truly say that ‘all is peace.’”
A plea from the "Colored People of Mobile" to the Freedmen's Bureau dated August 2, 1865 which would have landed on the desk of Lt. Col. George Harmount of the 97th USCT. "...our people are cruelly maltreated in the interior of this state of Alabama, that the planters will not yet let our people go but cruelly scourges them and shoots them if they remonstrate or plead for their freedom, that numerous tales of untold horror have reached us in Mobile which eye witnesses can prove, tales of terrible and heart rending atrocities which are related not to a civilized and Christian community but to the beasts of the forest, to the rocks & trees and stone, that at the recital of such wrongs those mute and inanimate things would be thrown into confusion"
Another example of the obstacles prohibiting the participation of colored people in society in the post war South is a letter Robinson sent while he was the Superintendent of the District of Mobile in early 1866.
"Mobile Ala Jany 22″ 1866Colonel: I learn from Mayor Withers that he is to go to day to Montgomery to have an interview with the General in reference to matters connected with the Bureau in this Dist
I would respectfully call the attention of the General to an ordinance recently passed by the Common Council of this city which requires all persons owning Hacks. cabs or drays to give a bond in the Sum of five hundred dollars before they can obtain a license to run the same1
This ordinance is a very oppressive one upon the Freedmen–many of whom are unable to give the Bond as it is required that the bondsman shall be a property owner and a resident of the city. In some cases the bondsman requires that he shall have an interest in the carriage or dray thus reducing the profits of the real owner
I cannot determine whether I have a right to interfere in this matter or not. But it seems to me that in accordance with the provisions of Gen Orders No 3 Dated war Dept. Adjt Genls Office Washington Jany 12″ 1866, the General might do so or give me orders to that Effect.2 This ordinance is equally oppressive to discharged officers of our army some of whom wish to run Hacks but Cannot get resident property owners to become their sureties. Please send me instructions in regard to this. I have exhausted every argument to have this law repealed but without Success I have the honor to be Colonel Your Obdt Servant
Geo D Robinson"
By the time the 97th U.S. Colored Infantry mustered out of service on April 1, 1866, it had become the “oldest colored Regiment in the service.”
When they were mustered out in April 1866 the conservative element left in the city resorted to more intimidation and violence to turn back the liberal progress for which the men in the regiment had fought for. Reports showed after the regiment left : Freedmen killed by whites = 70; Freedmen shot at, whipped and beaten by whites = 210; Freedmen killed in riots = 20; Freedmen wounded in riots = 20; Whites killed by Freedmen = 1.
Black Codes were passed throughout the southern states which restricted those of African ancestry, or those who promoted racial or legal equality. Individual counties adopted laws returning free men and women into a social and economic structure resembling enslavement. St Landry Parish in Louisiana, for example prefaced their restrictive laws with the following statement. ""AN ORDINANCE relative to the police of negroes recently emancipated within the parish of St. Landry.
Whereas it was formerly made the duty of the police jury to make suitable regulations for the police of slaves within the limits of the parish; and whereas slaves have become emancipated by the action of the ruling powers; and whereas it is necessary for public order, as well as for the comfort and correct deportment of said freedmen, that suitable regulations should be established for their government in their changed condition..." The restrictions included prohibiting owning or renting a house in the parish. "SECTION 3. Be it further ordained, That no negro shall be permitted to rent or keep a house within said parish. Any negro violating this provision shall be immediately ejected and compelled to find an employer; and any person who shall rent, or give the use of any house to any negro, in violation of this section, shall pay a fine of five dollars for each offence."
Non-whites were prohibited from gathering in groups after dark and "no negro shall be permitted to preach, exhort, or otherwise declaim to congregations of colored people, without a special permission in writing from the president of the police jury. Any negro violating the provisions of this section shall pay a fine of ten dollars, or in default thereof shall be forced to work ten days on the public road, or suffer corporeal punishment as hereinafter provided." Nor could they own a firearm, "That no negro who is not in the military service shall be allowed to carry fire-arms, or any kind of weapons, within the parish, without the special written permission of his employers, approved and indorsed by the nearest or most convenient chief of patrol. Any one violating the provisions of this section shall forfeit his weapons and pay a fine of five dollars, or in default of the payment of said fine, shall be forced to work five days on the public road, or suffer corporeal punishment as hereinafter provided." These :patrols" that enforced these laws were typically former Confederate soldiers.
Further, it was unlikely that any formerly enslaved person could go into business for himself as "no negro shall sell, barter, or exchange any articles of merchandise or traffic within said parish without the special written permission of his employer, specifying the articles of sale, barter or traffic. Any one thus offending shall pay a fine of one dollar for each offence, and suffer the forfeiture of said articles, or in default of the payment of said fine shall work one day on the public road, or suffer corporeal punishment as hereinafter provided."
Corporal punishment was described as "the corporeal punishment provided for in the foregoing sections shall consist in confining the body of the offender within a barrel placed over his or her shoulders, in the manner practiced in the army, such confinement not to continue longer than twelve hours, and for such time within the aforesaid limit as shall be fixed by the captain or chief of patrol who inflicts the penalty."
The Mississippi Black Codes of 1865 included the following laws.
"Section 1.No freedman, free Negro, or mulatto [shall] rent or lease any lands or tenements, except in incorporated towns or cities, in which places the corporate authorities shall control the same.
Sec 3. It shall not be lawful for any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto to intermarry with any white person; and those shall be deemed freedmen, free Negroes, and mulattoes who are of pure Negro blood; and those descended from a Negro to the third generation inclusive, though one ancestor of each generation may have been a white person.
Sec 6. All contracts for labor made with freedmen, free Negroes, and mulattoes for a longer period than one month shall be in writing and in duplicate, ...and if the laborer shall quit the service of the employer before expiration of his term of service without good cause, he shall forfeit his wages for that year, up to the time of quitting.
Sec 7. Every civil officer shall, and every person may, arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his or her employer before the expiration of his or her term of service...
Section 1. All freedmen, free Negroes, and mulattoes under the age of eighteen within their respective counties, beats, or districts who are orphans, or whose parent or parents have not the means, or who refuse to provide for and support said minors; and thereupon it shall be the duty of said Probate Court to order the clerk of said court to apprentice said minors to some competent and suitable person, on such terms as the court may direct,
Sec 3. In the management and control of said apprentices, said master or mistress shall have power to inflict such moderate corporeal chastisement as a father or guardian is allowed to inflict on his or her child or ward at common law: Provided that in no case shall cruel or inhuman punishment be inflicted.
Sec 5. If any person entice away any apprentice from his or her master or mistress, or shall knowingly employ an apprentice, or furnish him or her food or clothing, without the written consent of his or her master or mistress, or shall sell or give said apprentice ardent spirits, without such consent, said person so offending shall be deemed guilty of a high misdemeanor, and shall, on conviction thereof before the county court, be punished as provided for the punishment of persons enticing from their employer hired freedmen, free Negroes, or mulattoes.
Section 1. All rogues and vagabonds, idle and dissipated persons, beggars, jugglers, or persons practicing unlawful games or plays, runaways, common drunkards, common nightwalkers, pilferers, lewd, wanton, or lascivious persons, in speech or behavior, common railers and brawlers, persons who neglect their calling or employment, misspend what they earn, or do not provide for the support of themselves or their families or dependents, and all other idle and disorderly persons, including all who neglect all lawful business, or habitually misspend their time by frequenting houses of ill-fame, gaming houses, or tippling shops, shall be deemed and considered vagrants under the provisions of this act; and, on conviction thereof shall be fined not exceeding $100 . . . and be imprisoned at the discretion of the court not exceeding ten days.
Sec 2. All freedmen, free Negroes, and mulattoes in this state over the age of eighteen years found . . . with no lawful employment or business, or found unlawfully assembling themselves together . . . and all white persons so assembling with freedmen, free Negroes, or mulattoes, or usually associating with freedmen, free Negroes, or mulattoes on terms of equality, or living in adultery or fornication with a freedwoman, free Negro, or mulatto, shall be deemed vagrants; and, on conviction thereof, shall be fined in the sum of not exceeding, in the case of a freedman, free Negro, or mulatto, fifty dollars, and a white man, two hundred dollars, and imprisoned at the discretion of the court, the free Negro not exceeding ten days, and the white man not exceeding six months.
Section 1. No freedman, free Negro, or mulatto not in the military service of the United States government, and not licensed so to do by the board of police of his or her county, shall keep or carry firearms of any kind, or any ammunition, dirk, or Bowie knife.
Sec 2. Any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto committing riots, routs, affrays, trespasses, malicious mischief, cruel treatment to animals, seditious speeches, insulting gestures, language, or acts, or assaults on any person, disturbance of the peace, exercising the function of a minister of the Gospel, without a license from some regularly organized church, vending spirituous or intoxicating liquors, or committing any other misdemeanor the punishment of which is not specifically provided for by law shall, upon conviction thereof in the county court, be fined not less than ten dollars and not more than one hundred dollars, and may be imprisoned, at the discretion of the court, not exceeding thirty days.
Sec 5. Any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto convicted of any of the misdemeanors provided against in this act shall fail or refuse, for the space of five days after conviction, to pay the fine and costs imposed, such person shall be hired out by the sheriff or other officer . . . to any white person who will pay said fine and all costs and take such convict for the shortest time."
Sources:
Brueske, Paul, The Last Siege: The Mobile Campaign, Alabama 1865 (2018)
Bisbee, John (Editor), Captaining the Corps d'Afrique: The Civil War Diaries and Letters of John Newton Chamberlin (2016)
97th U.S. Colored Infantry, Regimental and Company Returns, U.S. National Archives
Freedmen's Bureau Records, National Archives
Freedmen's Bureau Transcription Project, transcription.si.edu
Fitzgerald, Michael W., Urban Emancipation: Popular Politics in Reconstruction Mobile, 1860-1890, (2002)
https://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/gna/Quellensammlung/05/05_blackcode_1865.htm